New Zealand Army Stores Accounting: 1845-1963: Part 1 -1845 -1918

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The evolution of New Zealand Army stores accounting from 1845 to 1963 reflects the broader transformation of the nation’s military logistics from its colonial origins to a modern, structured system. This study is not a deep dive into the intricate details and complexities of New Zealand military stores accounting but rather an introductory overview of a system that has incrementally evolved over 180 years.

Initially modelled on British military accounting principles, New Zealand’s unique defence requirements—shaped by its geographical isolation, force structure, and operational demands—necessitated continuous refinement. Accounting practices have continuously evolved since the first musket was issued to the militia in 1845. However, it wasn’t until The Public Stores Act of 1867 that structured inventory control and accountability measures were formally introduced. This legislation laid the foundation for military store accounting, marking a significant step towards the professionalisation of the Defence Stores Department. These measures ensured crucial oversight and efficiency in military logistics, particularly highlighted by the demands of the South African War and the two World Wars, underscoring the need for a robust and adaptable system capable of sustaining large-scale military operations.

By the mid-20th century, New Zealand had developed a sophisticated store accounting framework. The introduction of NZP1: Volume I—Stores Accounting in 1951 marked a milestone, formalising the policy regulating the army’s store management. The subsequent 1962 revision further streamlined procedures, ensuring the system remained relevant amid evolving logistical complexities.

New Zealand’s innovations in stores accounting did not go unnoticed. In 1963, the Australian Army sought guidance from New Zealand to modernise its system, acknowledging the effectiveness of the NZ Army’s approach. This recognition underscored New Zealand’s competence in military logistics, demonstrating that despite its smaller size, its expertise had broader strategic significance.

Structure of this Study

  • Part One will examine the period from 1845 to 1918, tracing the evolution of New Zealand’s military stores accounting system from its British colonial origins to a structured, modern framework comparable to those of New Zealand’s allies by 1914. The demands of the First World War tested the system’s efficiency and resilience, exposing strengths and weaknesses that would shape post-war reforms.
  • Part Two will cover the period from 1918 to 1945, during which the lessons learned from the First World War were applied to improve inventory control, procurement efficiency, and financial oversight. Economic constraints of the interwar years prompted refinements to stores accounting, leading to the introduction of cost accounting in 1921 and the formalisation of logistical procedures in 1927. The rapid mobilisation for the Second World War tested these systems on an unprecedented scale, accelerating the adoption of modernised inventory tracking and decentralised supply chain management. By 1945, these wartime adaptations had laid the foundation for a more sophisticated and accountable military logistics system.
  • Part Three will examine the period from 1946 to 1963, focusing on the transition from wartime supply chains to a peacetime military logistics infrastructure. The post-war period saw efforts to streamline surplus disposal, re-establish long-term procurement strategies, and integrate emerging technologies into stores accounting. By 1963, the system had matured into a mature manual store accounting framework, ensuring greater efficiency, accountability, and interoperability.

Military Stores Accounting and Its Distinctions from Commercial Stores Accounting

The primary goal of military stores accounting is to ensure that soldiers on the frontlines, tradesmen in workshops, and medical staff in field hospitals have the necessary tools and equipment to carry out their duties effectively. This involves managing administrative burdens through the command and supply chains and ensuring all required controls are in place for the long-term sustainment and capability maintenance.

Military stores accounting is a specialised system designed to manage and track the acquisition, storage, distribution, and disposal of military supplies. Unlike commercial stores accounting, which primarily focuses on cost control and financial profitability, military stores accounting prioritises accountability, operational readiness, and the efficient utilisation of resources to meet operational outputs.[1]

Differences Between Military and Commercial Stores Accounting

FeatureMilitary Stores AccountingCommercial Stores Accounting
ObjectiveEnsuring operational readiness and accountabilityMaximising profit and minimising costs
Nature of InventoryIncludes depreciable assets, expendable, consumable, repairable, and non-expendable itemsPrimarily consumable and depreciable assets
Accounting SystemUses strict regulatory frameworks and controlled issue systemsFocuses on balance sheets and profit margins
Lifespan of ItemsItems can remain in service for decades with periodic refurbishmentItems are typically depreciated and replaced
ValuationBased on operational utility rather than market priceBased on market valuation and depreciation
Security and ControlStrict control due to security concernsLess stringent control mechanisms

Classification of Military Stores

Military stores are classified into several categories based on their usage, longevity, and maintenance requirements:

  1. Expendable Stores – Items that are used once and cannot be reused (e.g., ammunition, medical supplies, fuel). These are issued as required and accounted for under strict consumption controls.
  2. Consumable Stores – Items that are used over time and require replenishment (e.g., rations, lubricants, batteries). While they are used up gradually, they still require accountability and stock rotation.
  3. Repairable Stores – High-value equipment that, when damaged or worn, can be repaired and reissued rather than disposed of (e.g., weapons, radios, vehicles). These items are often tracked using maintenance logs and servicing records to maximise their lifespan.
  4. Non-Expendable Stores – Permanent assets that remain in service for extended periods (e.g., buildings, infrastructure, large-calibre weapons). These items require detailed asset management and condition assessments.

The Long-Term Use of Military Equipment

Unlike commercial organisations, where items are often replaced once they end their economic life, military assets— from clothing to high-value or technologically complex equipment—are maintained, refurbished, and upgraded to extend their service life. For example:

  • Small Arms: Some rifles and sidearms remain in service for decades through regular maintenance and upgrades.
  • Vehicles: Military transport vehicles, such as trucks and armoured vehicles, can be refurbished multiple times before decommissioning.
  • Aircraft and Naval Assets: Large defence assets, including ships and aircraft, are often modernised with new technology and systems rather than being replaced outright.
  • Uniforms and Gear: Certain clothing items and equipment are subject to phased replacement cycles, where only components are updated as needed.

The Importance of Accountability in Military Stores Accounting

Military regulations are always subservient to Government legislation and regulations, especially Treasury rules regarding the expenditure of public monies. Military stores accounting is not a single system, but a collection of specialised accounting frameworks developed to manage different commodities such as ammunition, rations, fuel, vehicles, and technical spares. As military technology has advanced, these systems have evolved parallel to meet modern armed forces’ complex logistical demands.

Accountability is central to military stores accounting, ensuring that every piece of issued equipment is tracked to guarantee:

  • Proper usage and maintenance,
  • Prevention of loss or theft,
  • Compliance with operational requirements,
  • Efficient resource allocation during deployments.

Military store personnel are responsible for maintaining detailed records, conducting audits, and ensuring strict adherence to regulations. These rigorous accounting and inventory control measures ensure that military resources remain available and serviceable when required. Beyond merely tracking financial transactions, military stores accounting is a critical function that underpins military operations’ effectiveness, security, and sustainability.

Early Developments in Stores Accounting

From 1845, Quartermaster staff managing militia stores and then Volunteer stores from 1858 followed British military procedures. The Defence Stores were formally established in 1862, predating Lieutenant Colonel Edward Gorton’s appointment as Inspector of Defence Stores in 1869. Although Gorton assumed leadership in 1869, the Defence Stores had already been functioning, supporting the colonial military effort.[2]

Lieutenant Colonel Edward Gorton

The 1867 Public Stores Act, implemented under Gorton’s administration, introduced structured accounting procedures.[3]  The Defence Stores Department issued circulars and administrative guidelines to ensure proper accountability and management of military supplies. Gorton’s rigorous approach laid the foundation for the 1871 Public Stores Act, which regulated government-wide stores management and standardised accounting practices.[4]

1870-ammunition-stocktake

Despite Gorton’s achievements in strengthening accountability, his strict enforcement and meticulous oversight drew criticism, leading to the abolition of the Stores Inspection Department in 1877.[5]  However, his Defence Stores procedures remained robust, and a culture od accountability was established within Defence Stores. Thirty years later, Colonel George Macaulay Kirkpatrick of General Kitchener’s staff validated them in 1910, finding them comparable to British military standards.

Stores records were maintained by a system of indents and vouchers, with balances maintained in ledger books. The Defence Stores were required to provide annual reports of stocks on an annual basis, ensuring accountability and transparency in military logistics. These practices laid the foundation for the modern systematic inventory control and efficient stores management.

Example of a Ledger book

Development of the Artillery Stores (1880s Onwards)

As New Zealand expanded its Garrison Artillery and introduced new guns, equipment, and ammunition, additional accounting and management procedures became necessary. This was beyond the scope of the existing Defence Stores Department, requiring the expertise of military professionals.

In conjunction with Defence Storekeeper Captain Sam Anderson, Sergeant Major Robert George Vinning Parker, formerly of the Royal Garrison Artillery, developed a system of Artillery Stores Accounting. Parker was in charge of artillery ledgers and stores at Auckland, Wellington, and Lyttelton, ensuring the proper tracking and maintenance of artillery supplies. He continued in this role until 1889 when he was reassigned to Dunedin.[6]

Replacing Parker as the Artillery Ledger Keeper was Regimental Sergeant Major and Instructor in Gunnery Frederick Silver. Silver’s expertise in artillery logistics positioned him as a key figure in the continued refinement of artillery accounting systems. Following the death of Captain Sam Anderson in December 1899, Silver applied for the role of Ledger Keeper in the Defence Stores. Given his extensive experience and close working relationship with Anderson, Silver believed he was the ideal candidate.[7] However, due to his seniority, James O’Sullivan, the Chief Clerk of the Defence Stores, was awarded the role of Defence Storekeeper.[8]

Despite this, Silver was appointed as a temporary clerk in the Defence Stores, transitioning from the Permanent Militia on 25 June 1900. While his new role introduced additional responsibilities, Silver managed Artillery Ledgers seamlessly within the Defence Stores framework.[9]

The relationship between the Defence Stores and the Artillery was cooperative, with both functions operating as a single organisation. The Defence Stores was crucial in supporting the artillery’s logistical needs, ensuring that munitions, equipment, and essential supplies were readily available. The interconnected nature of these two functions allowed for a streamlined approach to military logistics, where artillery-specific requirements were integrated within the broader supply framework managed by the Defence Stores.

This integration led to an efficient system that balanced military necessity with stringent logistical oversight.

Organisational Reforms and the Defence Council (1906)

With the passage of the Defence Act Amendment Act 1906 on 28 October 1906, the Defence Council was established, providing the New Zealand Military Forces with a structured headquarters for the first time. The Act introduced specific staff functions, including:

  • Director of Artillery Services (Ordnance): Responsible for artillery armament, fixed coastal defences, and ordnance supplies.
  • Director of Stores: Responsible for clothing, personal equipment, accoutrements, saddlery, harnesses, small arms, ammunition, machine guns, transport, vehicles, camp equipment, and all stores required for the Defence Forces.[10]

As part of this reform, James O’Sullivan was confirmed as Director of Stores for New Zealand and appointed Quartermaster and Honorary Captain in the New Zealand Militia. Silver was designated as Assistant Defence Storekeeper, continuing to oversee Artillery Ledgers, which—despite falling under the purview of the Director of Artillery Services (Ordnance)—remained under Defence Stores control.

Despite these improvements, officers and Quartermaster staff in volunteer units were still elected annually, leading to inconsistency in stores management. Many units functioned more like social clubs than military organisations, resulting in disorganised stores accounts. This led to frequent discrepancies between supplies provided by the Crown and actual inventory.

The continued reliance on part-time and volunteer Quartermasters highlighted the need for further professionalisation of the quartermaster within the New Zealand Military, a challenge that would persist as the New Zealand Military transitioned into the modern era.

The Defence Act 1909 and the Transition to a Citizen Army

The Defence Act 1909 marked a significant transformation in New Zealand’s military organisation, laying the groundwork for a citizen-based Territorial Army and ending the Volunteer System.[11] This fundamental shift required extensive adjustments within the Defence Stores Department to support the expanding force structure.

For O’Sullivan, Silver, and the Defence Stores Department, the challenge was to continue modernising stores and logistics to meet the demands of a rapidly growing army. As the Territorial Force expanded, so did the logistical requirements, necessitating a more structured and professional approach to store management.

On 1 June 1910, Silver’s position was redesignated as Assistant Director of Military Stores, and he was appointed a Quartermaster with the rank of Honorary Lieutenant in the New Zealand Militia. His expertise and leadership played a crucial role in ensuring the Defence Stores Department could support the evolving needs of the New Zealand Military.

Guidance on the duties related to the management of stores

In 1910, Lord Kitchener, renowned as “The Empire’s foremost soldier,” visited New Zealand and thoroughly reviewed its military forces.[12]  His assessment led to significant reforms within the NZ Military, including establishing the New Zealand Staff Corps (NZSC) and the New Zealand Permanent Staff (NZPS) in 1911. These changes aimed to create a professional cadre of officers (NZSC) and enlisted personnel (NZPS) capable of providing expert guidance and efficient administration to the Territorial Force units.

Lord Kitchener’s visit critically evaluated the military’s capabilities, revealing deficiencies in equipment care, maintenance, and overall responsibility. The existing Regimental Quartermaster Sergeants (RQMS) lacked the necessary skills, underscoring the need for a professional RQMS cadre.

The Regulations (Provisional) for the Military Forces of New Zealand, which came into effect on 5 May 1911, established the command and administrative structure of the Forces.

The overall responsibility for military stores and equipment was placed under the Commandant of the Forces, with specific duties delegated to key officers and commanders at various levels.

Senior Officers Responsible for Stores and Equipment

  • Quartermaster General
    • Managed mobilisation stores, including policies on reserves of clothing, equipment, and general stores.
    • Determined scales of clothing, equipment, and stores needed for troops.
    • Oversaw mobilisation arrangements for food, forage, clothing, stores, and equipment.
  • Director of Supplies and Transport
    • Managed the supply of food, forage, fuel, and lighting.
    • Responsible for Army Service Corps technical equipment.
  • Director of Equipment and Stores
    • Oversaw clothing, equipment, and general stores.
    • Managed supplies of stationery, forms, and books.
    • Provided vehicles and technical equipment, except those for Artillery and Engineers.
    • Supervised the storage and distribution of small arms and ammunition.
  • Director of Ordnance and Artillery
    • Established reserve scales for arms, ammunition, and technical equipment for Artillery and Engineer units.
    • Managed the provision and inspection of guns, small arms, and ammunition.
    • Oversaw machine guns, Artillery and Engineer vehicles, and technical stores.
  • Director of Medical Services
    • Provided advice on and inspected all medical equipment to ensure it met operational standards.
  • Director of Veterinary Services
    • Provided expert advice on veterinary stores and equipment.

District and Unit Responsibilities

At a regional level, Commanders of Districts were responsible for maintaining the efficiency of forts and armaments, including all associated buildings, works, stores, and equipment. They also played a key role in ensuring financial prudence by overseeing officers responsible for spending and stores management.

At the unit level, the Commanding Officer had a broad set of responsibilities, including:

  • Maintaining discipline, efficiency, and proper administrative systems within the unit.
  • Ensuring accountability for public equipment, clothing, and stores.
  • Overseeing the maintenance and cleanliness of all issued arms.
  • Managing the proper receipt and distribution of rations and fuel.
  • Ensuring daily ration inspections were conducted in the presence of an officer.

Other Regimental Officers, such as Company Commanders, even those in temporary appointments, were also responsible for:

  • The equipment, ammunition, clothing, and stores assigned to their company.
  • Ensuring soldiers maintained personal cleanliness and proper care of their uniforms, arms, and accoutrements.
  • Supervising the quality and adequacy of rations provided to troops.

Finally, the 1911 Regulations clearly stated that any officer or individual responsible for public stores was strictly forbidden from lending any article under their charge unless expressly sanctioned by their Commanding Officer (CO). This regulation reinforced strict accountability and control over military stores, ensuring that all equipment, clothing, and supplies were used solely for authorised military purposes. [13]

To maintain proper accountability and management of military stores, Defence Stores personnel and unit Quartermasters followed detailed policies and procedures outlined in official publications, including:

  • Regulations (Provisional) for the Military Forces of New Zealand
  • Financial Instructions and Allowances Regulations for NZ Military Forces
  • Regulations for Clothing and Equipment of NZ Military Forces
  • NZ Dress Regulations
  • Prices Vocabulary of Stores
  • NZ Mobilisation Regulations

Additional guidance was also found in operational reference materials, such as:

  • Field Service Regulations
  • Training Manuals
  • Field Service Pocket Books

The responsibilities established in 1911 laid the foundation for the structured management of military stores, setting a precedent for all future stores accounting procedures. These early frameworks ensured accountability, efficiency, and operational readiness, embedding core logistical principles underpinning military supply chain management today. While titles and organisational structures have evolved, the fundamental tenets of logistical oversight, resource management, and financial accountability have remained steadfast. Successive iterations of Defence Orders, regulations, and policies have refined and expanded these responsibilities, ensuring their continued relevance and adaptability to the evolving operational and strategic needs of the New Zealand Defence Force in the modern era.

Standardising Stores Management and Training

In November 1911, thirty young men from military districts attended an intensive three-week training course at the Defence Stores Department in Wellington to address this. This comprehensive training, overseen by O’Sullivan, included:

  • Weapon storage, inspection, maintenance, and accounting
  • Storage, inspection, and maintenance of leather items (e.g., saddlery and harnesses)
  • Storage and upkeep of canvas and fabric equipment
  • Packing procedures for stores
  • Maintenance of records and documentation

The candidates successfully passed the examinations and were appointed as RQMS under General Order 112/10. Notably, this was the first military trade-related stores course conducted in New Zealand.

“Staff of the Quarter-master General—men who passed as Quarter-master instructors and are being drafted to the various districts, Colourised by Rairty Colour

To ensure consistency across districts, a conference of District Storekeepers was held in Wellington in August 1913. O’Sullivan noted their dedication to maintaining accountability for government property, highlighting their investment in their work.

Historically, annual military camps were managed ad hoc with inconsistent equipment scales. With the establishment of the Territorial Army, the Defence Stores Department introduced standardised camp equipment requirements in 1913.

To streamline supply chain management, temporary Ordnance Depots were established at brigade camps in 1913. Personnel received training under the Director of Equipment and Stores, and roles were assigned as follows:

  • Ordnance Officer: District Storekeeper Auckland (Lieutenant Beck)
  • Two clerks
  • Four issuers

Following the success of the 1913 camps, the system was expanded in 1914, with each regional storekeeper acting as an Ordnance Officer and staff numbers increasing to six clerks and twelve issuers.

Takapau Divisional Camp, 1914. Te Papa (1362454)

Strategic Assessment, Preparedness and Mobilisation

In early 1914, General Sir Ian Hamilton inspected New Zealand’s forces, assessing approximately 70% of personnel. He noted that the Territorial Force was “well-equipped and well-armed” but recommended looking to Australian models for future Ordnance development. O’Sullivan’s annual report for 1914 confirmed that the Defence Stores Department was in a strong position, with ample stocks of small arms, ammunition, clothing, and web equipment.

The 1914 mobilisation was the first test of the reorganised and reequipped New Zealand military forces since the South African War. The challenge was immense: raising, equipping, and dispatching an expeditionary force while maintaining the coastal defence garrisons and the Territorial Army for homeland security. O’Sullivan’s Defence Stores supported this effort, which, under his leadership, played a crucial role in successfully mobilising the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF).

The groundwork for the NZEF was laid in March 1914 when General Alexander Godley issued mobilisation regulations, adapted from British Army directives, to guide the formation of an expeditionary force. New Zealand’s commitment to supporting Britain in the event of war had been reinforced at the 1907 and 1911 Imperial Conferences, yet it was only in 1912 that Godley, confident in the growth of the Territorial Army, shifted focus to preparing for an overseas force.

As part of this preparation, Godley identified three likely tasks for the NZEF:

  1. Seizure of German Pacific possessions.
  2. Deployment to protect Egypt from a Turkish attack.
  3. Fighting in Europe alongside British forces.

By mid-1914, New Zealand’s military reorganisation was three years into an estimated seven-year process.

Although at full operational strength, confidence in the military’s preparedness was high. Annual training camps had been completed, and unit stores had been restocked. A major stocktake was planned for August 1914—marking the first such effort in two years, as the 1913 stocktake had been postponed due to industrial strikes.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914 set off a chain of events leading to war. On 30 July, Defence Headquarters instructed District Headquarters to begin precautionary war preparations. By 1 August, partial mobilisation schemes were underway, and further instructions on the composition of the NZEF followed on 2 August.

Each military district contributed a fully equipped infantry battalion, a mounted rifle regiment, artillery, engineers, and medical subunits. These units were to be drawn from the permanent forces, Territorial Force, and reserves. District Storekeepers supported by unit Quartermasters were critical in equipping these units with stores drawn from existing regiments and regional mobilisation depots.

On 3 August, Quartermaster General (QMG) Colonel Alfred William Robin issued detailed instructions regarding individual equipment. Territorial soldiers were to report with their complete kit, while reservists would collect theirs from their regiments. Quartermaster staff were given guidance on recording the transfer of equipment in regimental ledgers.

With war declared, New Zealand’s government announced on 7 August that an Expeditionary Force of 7,000–8,000 men would be mobilised. The response was overwhelming, with thousands of volunteers rushing to enlist. Having had several days’ notice, District Headquarters swiftly implemented mobilisation plans.

Godley’s assumption that the NZEF’s first task would be the seizure of German Pacific territories was proven correct. By 11 August, the New Zealand force for German Samoa—comprising 1,413 personnel—was fully equipped by the Defence Stores and ready for deployment. Additional stores were assembled at Wellington’s wharf for embarkation. The force landed on 29 August, securing Samoa without resistance.

Meanwhile, mobilisation camps were established across New Zealand:

  • Auckland (Alexandra Park) – District Storekeeper Captain William Thomas Beck set up a mobilisation store, assisted by Sergeant Norman Joseph Levien.
  • Christchurch (Addington Park) – Captain Arthur Rumbold Carter White managed the Canterbury District mobilisation store.
  • Dunedin (Tahuna Park) – Captain Owen Paul McGuigan handled equipping recruits, many of whom had no prior military training.
  • Wellington (Awapuni Racecourse) – The Defence Stores in Wellington directly supported the mobilisation effort.

As the central hub for Defence Stores, Wellington managed the receipt and distribution of equipment nationwide. Public appeals were made for short-supply items like binoculars and compasses. On 14 August, approval was granted for each soldier to receive a second pair of boots—typically, the second pair had to be purchased at a reduced rate.

Mobilisation was not simply a matter of sending troops overseas; it also involved ensuring the ongoing reinforcement of the NZEF and maintaining the Territorial Army at home. Planning for NZEF reinforcements commenced alongside the main mobilisation effort to sustain the force in the field. It was determined that 20% reinforcements would be provided six weeks after the NZEF’s departure, with a further 5% arriving monthly thereafter.

Trentham Camp was selected as the primary training and equipping centre for reinforcement drafts, where the Camp Quartermaster Stores, under Lieutenant (Temporary Captain) Thomas McCristell, played a critical role in ensuring personnel were properly outfitted before deployment. The scale of this task was immense, with store personnel working late into the night to issue uniforms and equipment to the steady stream of reinforcements. While the focus remained on sustaining the NZEF, efforts were also required to maintain the Territorial Army at home, ensuring a trained force remained available for local defence and future deployments. Mobilisation was not a single event but a continuous process that demanded careful logistical planning and execution to sustain the war effort.

Beyond issuing equipment, the Camp Quartermaster Stores also served as a training ground for new Quartermasters destined for overseas service. Selected candidates underwent instruction in key logistical functions, including clothing and equipping troops, managing camp equipment, organising ammunition supplies, and overseeing water distribution and field kitchen setup. This training ensured that reinforcements were well-equipped and supported by skilled personnel capable of sustaining operations in the field.

By September 1914, the Defence Stores had successfully equipped the NZEF. On 24 September, General Godley thanked the Defence Stores staff for their efforts, acknowledging their crucial role in the mobilisation process. However, controversy soon followed.

On 26 October, after ten days at sea, Godley sent a note to Minister of Defence Colonel James Allen, alleging irregularities in Defence Stores operations and implying that O’Sullivan and his staff might be engaging in misappropriation. Despite recognising O’Sullivan’s significant contributions, Godley recommended auditing the Defence Stores’ accounting systems. This unfounded allegation ultimately led to O’Sullivan’s resignation, overshadowing the department’s achievements in successfully mobilising and equipping both the Samoa Expeditionary Force and the NZEF.

New Zealand’s largest military deployment to date placed immense logistical demands on the Defence Stores. The department leveraged pre-war procurement contracts while employing competitive tendering to secure uniforms, equipment, and supplies. This approach facilitated rapid expansion, with Buckle Street in Wellington emerging as a key logistical hub. However, the sheer volume of supplies soon exceeded capacity, necessitating the leasing of commercial storage facilities beyond the department’s central depots in Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

As military activity intensified, the establishment of the Palmerston North District Store in early 1915 significantly enhanced logistical capabilities, particularly for units stationed in the lower North Island. This expansion underscored the growing need for decentralised supply operations, improving the efficiency of equipment distribution.

The rapid wartime expansion placed immense strain on both personnel and logistics. Despite increasing responsibilities, the department received only minimal increases in permanent staff, forcing heavy reliance on temporary workers to meet operational demands.

As the war progressed, concerns over procurement methods and accounting procedures led to mounting external scrutiny. In 1915, a Commission of Inquiry was launched to examine the Defence Stores’ business practices, financial controls, and purchasing procedures. While the Commission found no evidence of misconduct, it recommended procedural improvements to enhance transparency and efficiency. In response, the government established the Ministry of Munitions, which took over procurement and supply chain management, streamlining logistical operations..

Supporting the NZEF (1915–1921)

The New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) formed its own New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps (NZAOC) in 1915, recognising the need for a more structured military logistics system. This corps provided dedicated logistical support for the NZEF and residual units until 1921. This development was critical as the demands of modern warfare required a more organised and professional approach to supply chain management, equipment maintenance, and ordnance distribution.

Initially, the NZEF relied heavily on British supply lines and logistical structures, with Quartermasters embedded within units managing day-to-day supply requirements. However, as operations expanded and the need for self-sufficiency grew, the establishment of the NZAOC provided a more formal system of procurement, storage, distribution, and maintenance of military stores. The Centre of mass for the NZAOC within the New Zealand Division was the Assistant Director of Ordnance Stores (DADOS) and his staff, who operated in concert with regimental quartermasters, who remained responsible for issuing and maintaining personal and unit equipment at the frontline.

Quartermasters played a pivotal role in ensuring that troops were properly equipped, fed, and clothed and worked closely with the NZAOC to ensure seamless logistical support across different theatres of war, from Gallipoli to the Western Front and the Middle East.

By 1918, the NZAOC had become a critical component of the NZEF’s supply chain, with depots in the UK and the DADOS operating dumps in key operational areas. As the war concluded, the Corps played a crucial role in the demobilisation process, managing the return of surplus equipment, disposal of unserviceable stores, and redistributing serviceable assets to remaining military units and government departments.

The NZAOC continued to support New Zealand’s post-war military commitments until 1921. The lessons learned during the Great War laid the foundation for future developments in ordnance and supply management, shaping the logistics framework of the post-war army.

The role of Quartermasters and the NZAOC in supporting the NZEF between 1915 and 1921 was instrumental in ensuring that New Zealand troops remained equipped and operationally effective throughout the war. Their contributions sustained the force in combat and established enduring logistical principles that continued influencing military store management in the following decades.

Home Service Stores Accounting

On the home front, military authorities pushed for the complete militarisation of stores accounting, aiming to align New Zealand’s system with British Army Ordnance practices. This led to a significant leadership change in 1916, with Major Thomas McCristell replacing James O’Sullivan as Director of Equipment and Stores. Under McCristell’s leadership, the department underwent a comprehensive reorganisation, transitioning into a formal military structure.

By 1 February 1917, the home service New Zealand Army Ordnance Department (NZAOD) and NZAOC were officially established, replacing the Defence Stores Department. This milestone ended 48 years of civilian-led military logistics, marking a shift towards a fully integrated, military-controlled Ordnance service.

Concurrent with the establishment of the Home Service NZAOC, formal Ordnance Procedures were published, and the Regulations for the Equipment of the New Zealand Military were updated. These replaced all previous instructions and formed the foundation for New Zealand’s modern military logistics system.

Conclusion: Towards a Modern Military Stores Accounting System

The period from 1845 to 1918 laid the foundational principles of New Zealand Army stores accounting, evolving from ad hoc militia supply practices to a structured, professional system aligned with British military standards. Early efforts, such as the 1867 Public Stores Act and the establishment of the Defence Stores Department, introduced much-needed oversight and accountability, ensuring military forces were adequately equipped for colonial conflicts and later global engagements.

The early 20th century saw increasing refinement in stores management, with greater formalisation under the Defence Act 1909, the creation of a structured supply organisation, and the introduction of rigorous accounting and inventory control measures. The mobilisation for World War I tested these systems on an unprecedented scale, demonstrating their strengths and the need for further development. The establishment of the NZEF NZAOC in 1915 and the home service New Zealand Army Ordnance Department and Corps in 1917 signified a pivotal transformation, shifting military logistics from civilian oversight to a dedicated military-run system. The experiences of World War I reinforced the importance of accurate, efficient, and adaptable stores accounting systems, setting the stage for continued evolution in the interwar and post-World War II periods. The next part of this study, New Zealand Army Stores Accounting: 1919–1945, will examine how the lessons learned from wartime operations influenced peacetime logistics, the modernisation of accounting frameworks, and the growing role of technology and centralised control in military supply chain management.

Notes

[1] Australian Defence Force, “Logistics Series – Supply,” Australian Defence Doctrine Publication 4.3  (2004): 1.1-1.16.

[2] “Colonial Defence Force Act 1862,” ed. General Assembly of New Zealand (1, Wellington, 1862). http://www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_act/cdfa186226v1862n32291/.

[3] General Assembly of New  Zealand, “The Public Stores Act 1867,”  (1867), http://www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_bill/psb1867831178.pdf.

[4]“The Public Stores Act 1871,” ed. General Assembly of New Zealand (Wellington, 1871).;”Lieut-Colonel Edward Gorton,” New Zealand Gazette, Issue 1, 26 January 1872, 619.

[5] “Reductions,” Thames Advertiser, Volume XI, Issue 2938, 30 May 1878, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/THA18780530.2.10.; “The Government Brander,” Saturday Advertiser, Volume 3, Issue 130 (Wellington), 5 January 1878, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/SATADV18780105.2.13.

[6] Archives New Zealand, “Robert George Vining Parker,” Personal File, Record no R23513898 (Wellington) 1885-1925, https://ndhadeliver.natlib.govt.nz/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE18683088.

[7] Archives New Zealand, “Frederick Silver,” Personal File, Record no R23513983 (Wellington) 1976-1900, https://ndhadeliver.natlib.govt.nz/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE19149654.

[8] “Defence Storekeeper Appointed,” New Zealand Gazette No 98 p. 2154., 29 November 1900, 4.

[9] Archives New Zealand, “Frederick Silver.”

[10] “Defence Act Amendment Act 1906 (6 EDW VII 1906 No 41),” 1906, accessed 30 December 2021, http://www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_act/daaa19066ev1906n41250/.

[11] Peter Cooke and John Crawford, The Territorials (Wellington: Random House New Zealand Ltd, 2011), 153.

[12] Paul William Gladstone Ian McGibbon, The Oxford companion to New Zealand Military History (Auckland; Melbourne; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, 2000), 369.

[13] “Regulations (Provisional) for the Military Forces of New Zealand “, New Zealand Gazette 5 May 1911.;

New Zealand Army Stores Accounting (1939-1944): Overcoming Wartime Supply Challenges

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Between 1939 and 1944, the New Zealand Army’s home-front logistics functions undertook a monumental task. They faced significant obstacles in maintaining accurate record-keeping and inventory control, dealing with challenges such as limited storage capacity, a shortage of experienced personnel, and high turnover rates.  At the peak of this period, nearly 200,000 regular, Territorial, and Home Guard troops were mobilised and dispersed in numerous units across New Zealand and the Pacific, all in need of weapons, ammunition, clothing, and equipment. The scale of their operation was immense, and their efforts were crucial to the war effort. Supplying and maintaining this force, especially as they were dispersed and many required specialised and technical resources, was a testament to the dedication and resourcefulness of the personnel tasked with stores accounting.

With allied forces unable to stem the Japanese offensive in Asia and the Pacific and invasion likely, the situation’s urgency demanded swift and efficient mobilisation. However, the constant reshuffling of personnel and frequent transfers of equipment and ammunition between units added further complexity. Organisational changes and equipment shortfalls were frequent, compounding the difficulty of building up and sustaining military readiness at home while supporting New Zealand’s deployed forces overseas. Despite these hurdles, the New Zealand Army’s logistics efforts achieved significant milestones. Their resilience and adaptability in the face of immense national and global pressure are a source of admiration.

The Accounting System

Like the armies of Canada and Australia, the New Zealand Army was organised and equipped in line with British doctrine, with the New Zealand Army General Staff determining the Army’s organisation with local modifications to fit New Zealand’s unique requirements. These organisational structures were formalised through three main types of documents:

The Order of Battle (ORBAT): This outlined the number and composition of formations, detailing the units they commanded following the General Staff’s policy decisions.

The War Establishment (WE): This document specified each unit’s authorised staffing and structure, which were, in most cases, identical to the British Army war establishments.

The Unit Equipment Table (Form NZ 483): These defined each unit’s authorised stores and equipment. Examples of Equipment Tables approved from July 1939 were:[1] [2]

  • Form NZ 483-2: – HQ of a Mounted Rifle Brigade
  • Form NZ 483-3: – HQ of Infantry Brigade
  • Form NZ 483-5: – HQ of Infantry Brigade and Attached Troops
  • Form NZ 483-6: – HQ of a Medium Regiment, NZ
  • Form NZ 483-21: – A Mounted Rifle Regiment (Horse)
  • Form NZ 483-22: – A Mounted Rifle Squadron (Motorised)
  • Form NZ 483-23: – An Independent Mounted Rifle Squadron
  • Form NZ 483-24: – A Motor Regiment
  • Form NZ 483-32: – A Medium Battery
  • Form NZ 483-52: – A Field Company, RNZE
  • Form NZ 483-61: (a) – HQ of a District Signals Company
  • Form NZ 483-61: (b) – No 1 Sect, A District Signals Company
  • Form NZ 483-61: (c) – No 2 (M.R Brigaded Section) A District Sigs Coy
  • Form NZ 483-61: (d) – No 3 (Fd Arty Bde Sect) A District Sigs Coy
  • Form NZ 483-61: (e) – No 4 (Med Arty Bde Sect) A District Sig Coy
  • Form NZ 483-61: (f) – No 5 (Inf Bde Sect) A District Sig Coy
  • Form NZ 483-71: – An Infantry (Mixed) Battalion
  • Form NZ 483-72: – An Infantry (Mixed) Battalion (Fortress)
  • Form NZ 483-73: – No 2a (LMG) Platoon, for a Fortress Bn
  • Form NZ 483-76: – A Detached Rifle Company, National Military Reserve
  • Form NZ 483-81: – A Composite Company, ASC
  • Form NZ 483-82: – A Reserve MT Company, ASC
  • Form NZ 483-83: – A Composite Company, AHQ Reserve Group
  • Form NZ 483-91: – A Field Ambulance (Mechanised)
  • Form NZ 483-101: – A Light Aid Detachment, NZAOC

Changes to the unit organisation often stemmed from General Staff policy decisions regarding equipment scales—such as weapons, vehicles, and wirelesses—resulting in corresponding amendments to the War Establishments and Unit Equipment Table Form NZ 483 tables.

Each unit maintained both ‘peace’ and ‘war’ establishments. While the peace establishment included reduced personnel and resources for peacetime training, the war establishment detailed the full complement of men and equipment needed for active service. From 1939, regular and territorial units in New Zealand began mobilising to war strength with reservists, integrating the Territorial Force and recruits through the New Zealand Temporary Staff (NZTS), marking the shift to a wartime footing.

With an established table of what stores they should hold, A unit or sub-unit knew exactly what equipment they were responsible for, including spades, shovels, axes, etc. They would also have items of controlled stores usually identified with a serial number – the controlled stores would include compasses, binoculars, wristwatches, etc., which, when issued, would be signed for. When losing a controlled item, a Board of Inquiry was conducted to establish the circumstances of loss and determine who (usually the soldier) should pay for it.

The Company Quartermaster Sergeant (CQMS), whose rank could be Sergeant, Staff Sergeant of Warrant Officer Class Two, or, of course, the Company Commander, was responsible for the accountability of the unit or sub-unit stores. Standards of accountability for unit stores varied, with some units conducting regular kit checks and publishing lists of soldiers with deficiencies and the amount they owed in unit routine orders.

Manual Systems and Administrative Burden

The Army stores accounting system applied to all units of the New Zealand Army. It was based on a unit ledger, supported by inventories, vouchers, schedules, and scales of issue, which recorded all store items and transactions in the unit. All entries in ledgers were to be supported by a voucher, and all vouchers were cleared by posting to the ledger or annotated with a reference to another voucher or to the point of issue. Stores could only be struck off charge by one of the following:

  • An Issue Voucher, signed by the recipient of the stores
  • A Certificate Issue Voucher, where the recipient was not required to sign for the stores
  • A Board of Survey or Certificate of Condemnation
  • By an application to write of Army Stores

Units such as NZAOC depots, MT Branch depots, mobilisation units and Camp Quartermaster Stores were classed as accounting units. They managed their stocks with a ledger card system using the NZ161 Ledger card.[3]

Field Force units maintained their NZ Equipment Table as the main ledger, recording all items issued to the unit and their distribution.

Photograph of World War II servicewomen unloading pillows. Ref: PAColl-8846. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22327559

 While effective, the system was inflexible compared to today’s digital Inventory Management systems. Under the pressures of wartime, maintaining rigorous documentation proved challenging, and adherence to procedural norms was sometimes relaxed to expedite supply to forces in the Pacific and Home Defence.

Mobilisation and Training Impact

In 1941, brigade and district manoeuvres escalated the army’s activity tempo, and early in 1942, the entire Territorial Force was mobilised, and tactical responsibilities with the Home Guard were formalised. Many units operated in active service conditions, with newly trained Quartermasters and staff often lacking prior military store management experience. The potential threat of invasion by Japanese forces added a sense of urgency and pressure, making training and equipping all available troops the top priority, even if it meant sacrificing strict clerical accuracy.[4]

Members of the New Zealand Home Guard receiving equipment. New Zealand. Department of Internal Affairs. War History Branch:Photographs relating to World War 1939-1945. Ref: DA-00477. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22871820

Before total mobilisation, many of the Regular and Territorial Force personnel and civilian staff skilled in stores accounting had deployed overseas with the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) in the Middle East or with the Brigade Group in Fiji. This left domestic units staffed by officers and NCOs with limited military stores experience, often stationed in field locations without adequate storage facilities. Despite these challenges, the dedication and commitment of these officers and NCOs were unwavering, even as ongoing personnel rotation severely hindered inventory management.

Progress in Accounting Practices

By late 1943, the strategic situation had stabilised, and the threat of invasion was removed, with the demobilisation of the Home Guard and Territorial Force underway by early 1944. As part of this process, comprehensive audits of unit accounts were conducted. Despite some losses due to unrecorded stores, the overall value of missing inventory remained relatively low compared to the total volume managed. The following table presents the total amount written off from April 1939 to March 1944, which was £259,200 (equivalent to $28,119,860 in 2024).

Note that “Deficiencies” – representing faulty accounting – contributed £84,710 ($9,165,191.67 in 2024). Including estimates for undetailed years, this figure suggests that deficiencies represented less than 40% of the total write-offs.[5]

Reflecting on Wartime Logistics and Accountability

During the peak demand period of 1942 and early 1943, stores accounting took a secondary role to the urgent need to supply the mobilised units efficiently. The New Zealand Army was not only receiving large shipments of war material from the United Kingdom and North America but also managing the distribution of substantial volumes of the same equipment for both Pacific deployments and Home Defence, prioritising speed over strict procedural adherence. While this approach led to some irregularities, major scandals were avoided, and only minor cases of misappropriation occurred. This flexibility demonstrates the staff’s pragmatic approach to balancing efficiency and accountability under extreme conditions, ensuring operational needs were met without compromising integrity.

Lessons for Contemporary Military Stores Accounting

This analysis provides a perspective for modern logistics professionals, especially when using contemporary data management systems. Despite the sophisticated features of these platforms—like precise tracking and real-time reporting—the effectiveness of these tools is often linked to the skills and judgment of the personnel who operate them. The lessons from the New Zealand Army’s wartime experiences demonstrate that the strategic use and flexibility in stores accounting can be crucial in emergencies. However, suppose the benefits of the modern systems are not being fully realised. The root cause likely lies in the organisation’s skill sets for managing and leveraging these resources.

Rigidly following procedures can sometimes hinder progress, just as it did in the past when wartime conditions demanded quick and adaptable responses. For today’s logistics leaders, the real challenge is recognising when to exploit the flexibility offered by modern data systems and when to relax procedural controls. Balancing this requires training and experience, especially in crises where the pressure to deliver supplies efficiently can tempt managers to bypass standard processes. While this may be necessary temporarily, the quick restoration of standard procedures is essential to maintaining accountability and data quality.

The key is adaptability, but only to the extent that it does not lead to long-term compromises in record-keeping and operational integrity. If modern data management tools are underperforming, investing in staff training and developing the necessary expertise could ensure these advanced systems are used to their full potential.

Notes

[1] “New Zealand Equipment Tables -Provisional,” New Zealand Army Order 164  (1 July 1939).

[2] “New Zealand Equipment Tables -Provisional,” New Zealand Army Order 216  (1 October 1941).

[3] “FORMS AND BOOKS: Forms adopted,” New Zealand Army Order 266  (1 October 1939).

[4] “QMG (Quartermaster-Generals) Branch – September 1939 to March 1944,” Archives New Zealand Item No R25541150  (1944).

[5] “Appendices to Report on QMG (Quartermaster-General’s) Branch,” Archives New Zealand Item No R25541151  (30 June 1944).

Bringing the 3rd New Zealand Division Home: The Unheralded Triumph of New Zealand’s Greatest Military Reverse Logistics Operation

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Introduction

Since 1940, New Zealand played a pivotal role in the Pacific theatre, initially maintaining a brigade group in Fiji from 1940 to 1942. After a brief reorganisation and training back home, this brigade group was reformed in 1943 as the 3rd New Zealand Division, the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force in the Pacific (NZEF IP). Well-equipped with thousands of vehicles, tanks, and an extensive supply of ammunition and ordnance stores, the division conducted several successful amphibious combat operations. However, by 1944, sustaining this division became untenable. This led to one of the most remarkable reverse logistics operations in New Zealand’s military history: the withdrawal and redeployment of the 3rd New Zealand Division back to New Zealand. This colossal effort faced unprecedented challenges, including the lack of modern material handling equipment (MHE) and the absence of information technology (IT) systems.

New Zealand World War II soldiers loading stores into infantry landing craft, Vella Lavella, Solomon Islands. Ref: 1/2-044734-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22411372

The Deployment and Its Challenges

After reorganising in New Zealand, the 3rd New Zealand Division was deployed to the Solomon Islands, with its primary base in New Caledonia. By 1944, it became evident that New Zealand could no longer support this division due to the demands of both the Pacific and European theatres.[1] The decision was made to withdraw, with personnel either demobilised or redeployed to reinforce the 2nd New Zealand Division fighting in Italy. This withdrawal initiated a significant reverse logistics operation—one of the most remarkable in New Zealand’s military history.

Military reverse logistics involves returning equipment, supplies, and personnel from forward operational areas to home bases or depots. It encompasses transportation and the recovery, inspection, refurbishment, and redistribution of materials. This inherently complex task demands meticulous coordination to ensure that every piece of equipment and supply is accounted for.[2]

Despite its importance, many modern militaries do not sufficiently train for or practise reverse logistics, often leading to significant delays in regenerating forces after deployment. The lack of emphasis on these tasks can slow down the redeployment and recovery of operational capabilities, as critical items may be lost, damaged, or delayed in transit.

Moreover, reverse logistics involves disposing of or recycling obsolete or damaged equipment, adding another layer of complexity. The pressure to quickly remove materials from operational theatres often conflicts with the need for thorough inspection and assessment. Without proper planning and execution, militaries may be unable to effectively reconstitute their forces for future missions, resulting in decreased readiness and prolonged downtime.

Between August 1944 and July 1945, New Zealand undertook the monumental task of returning all equipment from the Pacific to its depots. This operation involved over 50,000 items held by the NZEFIP Ordnance depots, 3,274 vehicles, 25 tanks, and tonnes of ammunition and New Zealand Army Service Corps (NZASC) supplies. Despite the vast scale of this effort, the return of the 3rd New Zealand Division has largely faded from memory. Nevertheless, it stands as a remarkable logistical achievement, showcasing the adaptability and efficiency of New Zealand’s military personnel under demanding conditions. Incorporating reverse logistics into military training and planning is vital for improving operational efficiency, reducing delays, and maintaining readiness—a challenge many modern forces still struggle to address fully.

Infrastructure and Manual Labour as the Backbone

The success of this operation heavily relied on the infrastructure at Mangere Crossing Camp in Auckland. Initially built for United States forces and known as Camp Euart, the camp was named in honour of Captain Elwood J. Euart of the United States Army Field Artillery. Captain Euart heroically lost his life while saving others during the sinking of the U.S. Army Transport President Coolidge due to striking a Japanese mine off the Island of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu. Upon learning that soldiers were trapped in the ship’s infirmary, he re-entered the sinking vessel to assist them. Tying himself to the lower end of a rope, he held it steady enough for the trapped men to climb to safety despite the ship’s heavy listing. Tragically, when Euart attempted to climb the rope himself, the vessel suddenly careened and sank, preventing his escape. His selfless courage and devotion to duty cost him his life.[3]

Camp Euart began hosting US forces in September 1942 and, at its peak, accommodated 5,000 troops—nearly equal to the entire population of Otahuhu at the time.[4] The camp remained under U.S. control until 1944, when it was vacated and handed over to the New Zealand forces. In August 1944, it became the Mangere Stores Sub Depot of the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps (NZAOC) Main Ordnance Depot (MOD), designated to receive supplies and equipment returned from the Pacific by the 3rd New Zealand Division, which established its advanced base headquarters at what became known as Mangere Crossing Camp.

Strategically located near key rail and road networks, the 80-acre site became a central hub for processing vast quantities of war material. Although optimised for storage and handling, the logistics teams relied on manual labour, as no modern MHE was available then.

The camp featured five warehouses designed for large-scale equipment storage:

  • Two warehouses, each measuring 300 by 120 feet (91 by 36 metres)
  • One warehouse measuring 300 by 60 feet (91 by 18 metres)
  • One warehouse measuring 360 by 120 feet (109 by 36 metres)
  • One warehouse measuring 200 by 240 feet (60 by 73 metres)

These warehouses provided 190,200 square feet (17,670 square metres) of storage space. Adding three ancillary buildings increased the total space to 207,600 square feet (19,287 square metres). Each warehouse had concrete floors, wooden framing, and fibrolite walls and roofs, ensuring durability and protection from the elements.[5]

An aerial view of the World War II US military camp, known as Camp Euart, and the supply depot at Mangere Crossing, 1944. Manukau Research Library, PAP: IV, Footprints 02152. Papatoetoe Historical Society.
New housing beside industrial area in Otahuhu, Auckland 1949. Whites Aviation Ltd: Photographs. Ref: WA-19438-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22322624

A key logistical advantage of the camp was its railway siding, which extended directly into the warehouse block. This allowed trains to deliver supplies straight into the camp, reducing handling time and labour demands. Integrating transport and storage was vital for managing the massive flow of materials—including 10,000 tonnes of mixed stores and 3,000 vehicles—that arrived over three months starting in August 1944.[6]

3 NZ Division Tricks and Tanks parked at Main Ordnance Depot, Mangere Sub Bulk Depot on their Return from the Pacific in 1944. Alexander Turnbull Library
3 NZ Division Tricks and Tanks parked at Main Ordnance Depot, Mangere Sub Bulk Depot on their Return from the Pacific in 1944. Alexander Turnbull Library
3 NZ Division Tricks and Tanks parked at Main Ordnance Depot, Mangere Sub Bulk Depot on their Return from the Pacific in 1944. Alexander Turnbull Library
3 NZ Division Tricks and Tanks parked at Main Ordnance Depot, Mangere Sub Bulk Depot on their Return from the Pacific in 1944. Alexander Turnbull Library
3 NZ Division Tricks and Tanks parked at Main Ordnance Depot, Mangere Sub Bulk Depot on their Return from the Pacific in 1944. Alexander Turnbull Library

Without modern IT systems for inventory tracking or automated equipment for loading and unloading, work parties manually handled over 250,000 packages, each averaging 100 pounds (45 kilograms).[7]

The Ordeal of the Quartermasters

One of the most remarkable aspects of this operation was the work of the quartermasters. Many of these men were not professional logisticians but wartime soldiers who had learned logistics and planning over the previous four years. The quartermasters from the 3rd Division, overseeing 90 accounting units, ensured every piece of equipment was meticulously accounted for and documented before leaving New Caledonia.

Once the shipments arrived in New Zealand, their responsibilities intensified. They had to navigate shipping schedules, locate and verify their units’ equipment, and secure space for inspection—a massive logistical challenge requiring precision under pressure.

Their task did not end with verification. Each item had to be cleaned, repaired if necessary, and repacked, all while passing rigorous inspections by the MOD staff and Defence Auditors. These inspectors refused to accept any equipment in less-than-perfect condition, leading to a detailed audit process. Quartermasters had to account for every lost or damaged item, often relying on incomplete records, while facing auditors who were relentless in spotting discrepancies. Clearance was only granted when the records were flawless, adding immense pressure to a demanding job.

The success of this operation is even more impressive, considering these men were not trained logisticians. Their ability to plan, organise, and execute such a complex task highlights their adaptability and determination.

A Triumph Despite the Odds

By July 1945, the reverse logistics operation had been successfully completed. Equipment had either been returned to New Zealand’s MOD at Trentham or the Northern District Ordnance Depot at Hopuhopu, with many vehicles transferred to Sylvia Park, a former US stores depot repurposed for New Zealand military use. Equipment deemed damaged beyond repair or surplus was either sold through the War Assets Realisation Board or disposed of by public auction.

Despite the absence of modern tools and systems, this operation was a remarkable achievement in New Zealand military logistics, unmatched today. While the infrastructure at Mangere Crossing Camp played a crucial role, the determination and resilience of New Zealand’s military personnel ensured the successful completion of this massive logistical effort.

Conclusion

The withdrawal of the 3rd New Zealand Division from the Pacific was not merely a redeployment after successful combat operations but a logistical achievement of remarkable scale. Conducted under extreme conditions, without the advantages of modern MHE or IT systems, the operation relied heavily on the strategic utilisation of available infrastructure, such as Mangere Crossing Camp, and the dedication of New Zealand’s military personnel. The meticulous coordination required to recover, sort, inspect, and redistribute thousands of items, vehicles, and stores showcased the exceptional adaptability of New Zealand’s logistics teams. This operation—the most significant reverse logistics effort in the nation’s military history—remains a powerful testament to the skill, resourcefulness, and perseverance of those who brought the 3rd New Zealand Division home under incredibly demanding circumstances. Though often overlooked, it is a crucial chapter in New Zealand’s military logistics legacy.

Notes

[1] Matthew Wright, Pacific War: New Zealand and Japan 1941-45 (Auckland, N.Z.: Reed, 2003, 2003), Bibliographies, Non-fiction.

[2] Kristin F. Lynch, John G. Drew, Robert S. Tripp, and C. Robert Roll., Sustaining Army Forces in Operation Iraqi Freedom: Major Findings on the Experience of Army Logistics in the Field (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2006).

[3] “An Undeniable Act Of Self Sacrifice,” South Pacific World War II Museum, Espiritu Santo Vanuatu, 2024, 2024, https://southpacificwwiimuseum.com/euart/.

[4] Matthews and Matthews Architechs Ltd., “Otahuhu Historic Heritage Survey – Overview Report,”  (2014): 32, chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.aucklandcouncil.govt.nz/arts-culture-heritage/heritage/heritagesurveys/otahuhu-heritage-survey-01.pdf.

[5] F Grattan, Official War History of the Public Works Department (PWD, 1948), 687.

[6] E.V Sale, Base Wallahs: Story of the units of the Nase Organisation, NZEF IP (A.H. and A.W. Reed for the Third Division Histories Committee, 1947), Non-fiction, 254-56.

[7] P.P Henley, Ordnance: The unofficial history of the New Zeland Ordnance Corps in the Pacific from 1940 until the third division was disbanded in 1944 (A.H. and A.W. Reed for the Third Division Histories Committee, 1947), Non-fiction, 225.

The 1931 Reductions of the New Zealand Military: A Historical Analysis

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Largely forgotten today, the early 1930s marked a tumultuous period for the New Zealand military which was profoundly impacted by the Great Depression. In 1931, facing unprecedented economic pressures, the military was compelled to enact severe cutbacks and reductions. The lessons drawn from these pivotal events offer invaluable insights into fortifying the resilience and adaptability of today’s military forces amidst contemporary strategic and economic uncertainties.

Establishment and Early Developments

Established in 1917, the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps (NZAOC) quickly became integral to the country’s Permanent Military Forces. However, the onset of the global economic depression triggered substantial changes in New Zealand’s military funding and organisational structure. As the worldwide economic downturn took hold, austerity measures and restructuring became unavoidable, necessitating a comprehensive overhaul of the NZAOC to align with the new economic realities.

Badges of the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps, 1917 -1937. Robert McKie Collection

Established in 1917, the intervening years had seen the NZAOC decline in personnel from its peak strength of 493 in 1919 to an average of 118 officers and other ranks between 1920 and 1930. Despite this reduction, significant infrastructural advancements replaced the colonial-era facilities with modern buildings across various locations. Key NZAOC establishments included:

  • Northern Military District:
    • Ordnance Depot and Workshop at Waikato Camp in Hopuhopu, constructed in 1928.
    • Ordnance Workshop at Devonport’s artillery yard (now the RNZN Museum).
    • Small Arms Ammunition Testing Staff stationed at the Colonial Ammunition Company factory in Mount Eden, Auckland.
  • Central Military District:
    • The Main Ordnance Depot and Workshop at Trentham was established as a permanent camp in 1915.
    • The Ammunition Section at Fort Balance.
  • Southern Military District:
    • The Ordnance Depot and Workshop at Burnham Camp was established in 1921 with the ongoing construction of new infrastructure.

These developments underscored the NZAOC’s strategic presence in the Northern, Central, and Southern Military Districts.

1938 Military Camp, Hopuhopu, Waikato. Whites Aviation Ltd: Photographs. Ref: WA-55972-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23181165

Economic Downturn and Military Reorganisation

The economic downturn of the early 1930s necessitated severe cuts to government expenditure, compelling the New Zealand military to undergo substantial reorganisation. In 1930, the military’s strength stood at 555 regulars and 16,990 Territorials. By 1931, this was reduced to 349 regulars and 3,655 Territorials. These reductions were implemented under the provisions of the Finance Act, 1930 (No. 2), which facilitated compulsory retirements and transfers to civilian roles for many NZAOC personnel.

The Act authorised the retirement on superannuation of any member of the Permanent Force or the Permanent Staff under the Defence Act, 1909, or of the clerical staff of the Defence Department whose age or length of service was such that if five years had been added they would have been enabled as of right or with the consent of the Minister of Defence to have given notice to retire voluntarily. Compulsory retirement under this Act was facilitated in two tranches:

  • Tranche 1: Personnel Retired without Superannuation:
    • Servicemen eligible for retirement under the provision of the Act who were not contributing to the superannuation scheme were notified on 13 December 1930 of their impending release. They were granted six weeks of special leave, effective 31 December 1930, with their final release scheduled for 11 February 1931 after completing their notice period.
  • Tranche 2: Personnel Retired with Superannuation:
    • Servicemen eligible for retirement under the provision of the Act who were contributing to the superannuation scheme received notification on 13 December 1930. Their salary continued until 31 March 1931, with superannuation benefits commencing in April. Accrued leave entitlements were taken concurrently during this notice period, resulting in much leave accrued forfeited.

These tranches included Ordnance soldiers who had joined the NZAOC since its formation in 1917. Some had transferred directly from the Defence Stores, while others had served in the pre-war Permanent Forces or had active service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF). Their compulsory retirement represented a significant loss of knowledge and experience for the New Zealand military. Under the provisions of section 39 of the Finance Act, 1930 (No. 2), 44 members of the NZAOC were placed on compulsory retirement, including the following personnel who have so far been identified.

Northern Military District

  • 948. Lieutenant Michael Joseph Lyons, MSM

  • 968 Sergeant Thomas Alexander Hunter, MSM

  • 62 Private Frank Jewiss

  • 166 Sergeant William John Rabbidge

  • 268 Staff Quartermaster Sergeant James Alexander Kenning

  • Captain Frank Edwin Ford

Central Military District

  • 19 Sergeant Alfred Charles Butler    

  • 39 Corporal Simon Alexander Fraser

  • 64 Gunner Maurice Francis Johnstone          

  • 111 Corporal John Sawyer   

  •  920 Corporal Gordon James Francis Arenas 

  • 941 Sergeant William Hans McIlraith         

  •  956 Staff Sergeant Saddler George Alexander Carter, MSM

  • 960 Sergeant Frank William Ching

  • 965 Corporal Philip Alexander MacKay MSM

  • 976 Private William Valentine Wood MSM

  • 978 Corporal Earnest John Williams MSM

  • 1018 Sargeant Major James Oliver Pringle Southgate           

  • 1024 Armament-Artificer Eric Wallace Jepson       

  •  Lieutenant L.A Clement

  • Captain Alfred William Baldwin

  • Captain William Moody Bell

  • 55 Staff Quartermaster Sergeant John Francis Hunter MSM

  • 143 Armament Sergeant Major (WO1) Joseph Warren

  • 995 Staff Sergeant Wilfred Robert White

Southern Military District

  • 2 Armament Staff Quartermaster Sergeant John Alexander Adamson MSM

  • 1006 Lance Corporal Norman William Wilkie

  • Corporal Cecil John Knight

  • Captain Arthur Rumbold Carter White

  • 966 Lance Corporal William Terrington Popple, MSM

Transition to Civilian Roles

To achieve further cost savings, 74 NZAOC soldiers received notifications in December 1930 that their positions would be retained but transferred to civilian roles with civilian pay rates. This transition took effect in February 1931, causing significant disruption for those affected, including the loss of accumulated leave and adjustment to civilian life..

Some of these soldiers were transferred to other departments within the defence establishment, while the majority remained in their current roles within the NZAOC Ordnance Depots and workshops. They transitioned overnight from wearing uniforms to civilian clothes, with significantly reduced rates of pay and civil service conditions of service. The following personnel have so far been identified as being transferred to the Civil Staff.

Northern Military District

  • 967 Corporal Robert John Gamble

  • 974 Corporal Henry William Le Comte

  • 983 Sergeant Clifford Verne Little

  • 996 Lance Corporal Athol Gilroy McCurdy

  • 202 Lance Corporal Arthur Graham Munday

Central Military District

  • 972 Private John Dennis Anderson   

  • 35 Lance Corporal Harry Harper Ekins        

  • 1061 Lance Corporal Earnest Fenton

  • 4 Sergeant Kenneth Olaf John Andersen     

  •  699 Corporal Oliver Avis, MM

  • 889 Staff Sergeant George Bagnell   

  • 1004 Lance Corporal James Johnston Bolt  

  • 961 Lance Corporal Edgar Charles Boult     

  • 1000 Private George Cumming Bremner      

  • 1027 Artificer William Cowan Brizzle         

  • 1003 Lance Corporal Ernest Carr      

  • 1012 Lance Corporal Charles Fred Ecob      

  • 864 Corporal William Charles Francis          

  • 1025 Tent-Repairer-Artificer Herbert Roy Griffin   

  • 714 Lance Corporal Kenneth Hoare  

  • 1016 Private Ernest William Hughes            

  • 989 Corporal Percy Reuben Hunter  

  • 213 Lance Corporal William Saul Keegan   

  • 1019 Private Edward Gavin Lake     

  • 342 Corporal Allen Charles Leighton

  • 998 Lance Corporal Allen Dudley Leighton 

  • 1011 Lance Corporal Geoffrey Charles Leighton     

  • 363 Staff Sergeant David Llewellyn Lewis, MSM

  • 1007 Lance Corporal Thomas James Mclaughlin     

  • 1020 Private John Douglas Melville 

  • 894 SQMS (WO2) James Moroney  Sergeant David Nicol]

  • 1023 Lance Corporal John Nixon      

  • 467 Corporal George Wantford Pamment    

  • 1013 Private Francis Reid     

  • 1022 Private Henry McKenzie Reid 

  • 1014 Wheeler-Artificer Robert Stacey Vincent Rowe              

  • 665 Private William Alexander Sammons    

  • 927 Private Leonard William Sanders           

  • 963 Corporal Albert Edward Shadbolt          

  • 138 Lance Corporal David Henry Strickland

  • 1017 Private Lionel Herbert Stroud  

Southern Military District

  • 970 Sergeant Edward Vincent Coleman

  • 1028 Private Percival Nowell Erridge

  • 959 Sergeant Charles Edward Gleeson

  • 1276 Private Lewis Haslett

  • 885 Corporal Charles James Johnston Storie

  • 728 Private William Sampson Valentine

Impact on Military Preparedness and Social Consequences

The compulsory retirements and transfers to civilian roles led to a reduction in the NZAOC’s military strength, impacting its preparedness during subsequent years. However, beginning in 1934, improved government finances allowed for an increase in the army’s training tempo, despite global events hinting at looming conflict. The following personnel who have so far been identified as been retained:

Northern Military District

  • 984 Staff Sergeant Thomas Joseph Holliday

  • 1260 Armament Staff Quartermaster Sergeant Samuel Thomson MSM

  • 915 Armament Staff Sergeant Eric John Hunter

  • 141 Armourer Corporal Reginald Samuel Henry Lyons

Central Military District

  • 14 Armament Sergeant Major Bertram  Buckley           

  • 992 Armament Corporal Hilliard Charles Cooper

  • 1029 Artificer James  Dabney          

  •  964 Warrant Officer Class 1 John William Dalton

  • 1032 Armourer Staff Sergeant Frederick Henry Dew

  • 979 Armourer Staff Sergeant John William Evers

  • 1026 Armament Sergeant Leo Stanley Jefcoate

  • Major Thomas Joseph King

  • 945 WO2 Armament SQMS Henry Albert Wiliam Pierard

  • 1021 Armament Staff Sergeant Arthur Sydney Richardson

  • 1010 Lance Corporal George Frederick Robert Ware

Southern Military District

  • 7 Corporal Percey Charles Austin

  • 25 Armourer Staff Sargeant Francis Augustus Clapshaw

  • Lieutenant Henry Erridge Erridge

The reduction in the Territorial Force in 1931 resulted in decreased activity in subsequent years. However, beginning in 1934, improved government finances allowed for an increase in the army’s training tempo. Concurrently, global events in China, Ethiopia, and Germany hinted at looming conflict, prompting a gradual shift towards preparing for future mobilisation. Under the leadership of Major Thomas Joseph King, who served as Director of Ordnance Services (DOS) since 1924, the NZAOC worked diligently within its means to enhance readiness, including designing a new system of stores accounting for the emerging Royal New Zealand Air Force.

The new NZAOC Badge was approved in 1937. Robert McKie Collection

King focused on recruiting new personnel and leveraging his civilian staff, who were former NZAOC soldiers, to reenlist experienced individuals into key leadership roles at Trentham, Hopuhopu, and Burnham. When war was declared in September 1939, King successfully mobilised his small military and civilian team to form the rump of the New Zealand Ordnance Corps (NZOC) within the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF).

During the 1938-45 war, nearly all NZAOC soldiers who had been transferred to civilian roles in 1931 found themselves back in uniform, restarting their military careers as Ordnance Officers, Warrant Officers, and Senior Non-Commissioned Officers (SNCOs) alongside their peers who had been retained. Many from this group continued to provide leadership within the RNZAOC and Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (RNZEME) up to the 1960s, with several even holding the prestigious position of DOS in the post-war army.

Lieutenant Colonel Francis Reid handed over the position of DOS to his brother, Lieutenant Colonel Henry McKenzie Reid, on 31 March 1957. Both brothers joined the NZAOC as soldiers in the late 1920s, only to be transferred to the civilian staff in 1931. Commissioned during WW2, both served with distinction throughout the war.

Negative Effects and Lessons Learned

The 1931 reductions in the New Zealand military, driven by the economic pressures of the Great Depression, had profound and lasting negative effects, both socially and in terms of military preparedness. Socially, the abrupt compulsory retirements and transitions to civilian roles caused significant upheaval for the affected soldiers and their families. The loss of accumulated leave and the sudden shift from military to civilian life resulted in considerable stress and financial strain.

In terms of military preparedness, the reductions led to a substantial loss of experienced personnel and institutional knowledge. The drastic decrease in the Territorial Force and overall military strength severely hampered the country’s ability to maintain an effective and ready military force. The reduced activity and training during the early 1930s left the military less prepared for the impending global conflicts of the late 1930s and early 1940s than in 1914. This lack of preparedness could have had dire consequences had international tensions escalated more quickly.

However, subsequent efforts to rebuild, modernise, and mobilise the military demonstrated the resilience and adaptability of the New Zealand military. Starting in 1934 under the leadership of Major Thomas Joseph King, the NZAOC enhanced its readiness by recruiting new personnel and reenlisting former soldiers from the civilian staff. The return of nearly all NZAOC soldiers to uniformed service during the 1939-1945 war showcased their dedication and the critical role of experienced personnel in maintaining military effectiveness.

The 1931 reductions’ experiences highlight the importance of balancing economic constraints and the need for a capable and prepared military force. These lessons remain relevant today as modern military forces navigate similar challenges amidst strategic and economic uncertainties. Ensuring that reductions do not compromise long-term readiness and resilience is crucial for the effective functioning of any military organisation.

Notes

[1] (1930). “H-19 Defence Forces of New Zealand, Annual report of the General Officer Commanding the Forces.” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives.

[2] (1931). “H-19 Defence Forces of New Zealand, Annual report of the General Officer Commanding the Forces June 1930 to May 1931.” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1 January 1941.

[3] (1914). King, Thomas Joseph. Personal File, Archives New Zealand. Wellington.

The Evolution of Army Catering in New Zealand (1845-1948)

1 Comment

“If you were an army cook on leave and met some of the troops accompanied by their girlfriends, wives or mothers, which would you rather hear them say: “There’s the chap who turns out the great meals I’ve told you about”; or, “That’s the bloke who murders good food?”

Question placed to trainee cooks by Sergeant-Cook Instructor Bourke (Paddy to all the camp) at Waikato Camp, 1942

Over the last two hundred years, the adage attributed to Napoleon, “An army marches on its stomach,” underscored the paramount importance of sustenance in military operations. In the annals of the New Zealand army, this principle has been diligently upheld, with meticulous attention paid to ensuring soldiers are well-fed, notwithstanding the challenges posed by varying locations and conditions. Establishing the New Zealand Army Service Corps (NZASC) units during the tumultuous periods of the First and Second World Wars is a testament to this commitment. NZASC units were principally charged with baking bread, butchering meat, and procuring and distributing fresh and packaged provisions to frontline units, playing a pivotal role in sustaining the morale and effectiveness of New Zealand forces during these conflicts. Even in more recent conflicts, such as those in Southeast Asia during the 1950s and 60s, New Zealand troops operated on ration scales notably more generous than their British counterparts, a testament to the nation’s dedication to the well-being of its service members. However, despite the recognition of logistical efforts in military history, a notable gap remains in the literature concerning the contributions of New Zealand Army cooks. While Julia Millen’s comprehensive work, Salute to Service: A History of the Royal New Zealand Corps of Transport, acknowledges the significance of Cooks from when they became part of the RNZASC in 1948, scant attention has been paid to the preceding 103 years, from 1865 to 1948.

This article draws upon primary sources and aims to redress this oversight by delving into the hitherto unexplored realm of New Zealand Army catering. By shedding light on the endeavours of these unsung culinary heroes, it seeks to enrich our understanding of the multifaceted efforts required to sustain a fighting force, thereby honouring their indispensable contributions to New Zealand’s military heritage.

Since the first New Zealand Militias were created in 1845, there was always a need to feed the militias when called out for service. Given the nature of Militia service and the fact that they would not serve far from their home location, their messing requirements would have been minimal. Some individuals would likely have been selected from within the ranks to collect any rations provided and prepare meals.

With the advent of the volunteer era in 1858, the New Zealand military became a mixed force of Infantry, Cavalry and artillery who, on occasion, would assemble for annual camps where units within a district would assemble and conduct combined training. While rations were paid through District Headquarters and Defence Stores, messing arrangements would be rudimentary, with men selected from within the ranks preparing the meals from the rations sourced from local vendors. This situation was mirrored in the Permanent Militia, which had staffed coastal defence forts and the military depot at Mount Cook in Wellington since the 1880s.

Clutha Mounted Rifles 1899. Camp Cooks. Hocken Collection.

During New Zealand’s involvement in the war in South Africa, the issue of messing arose as large numbers of mobilising men were stationed in camps. Messing arrangements involved a combination of civilian contractors and regimental cooks. However, an inquiry into soldiers’ comfort, housing, and victualling at the Newtown Park Camp and Volunteer Billets revealed widespread dissatisfaction. Numerous complaints were lodged regarding the quality and quantity of rations provided, the low standard, and, at times, the lack of meals prepared by contractors and regimental cooks.[1] In South Africa, rations, following the British scale, were supplied by the British Army Service Corps (ASC), supplemented by fresh mutton acquired from the enemy and cooked by members of the contingent.[2]

After the conclusion of the South Africa War, interest in the military surged, prompting a reorganisation of the volunteer movement into a more robust and structured system of regiments and battalions. Despite discussions in 1904 regarding establishing a New Zealand Army Service Corps (NZASC), no decision was indicated in the Commandant of the Forces’ annual report on its formation.[3]

Further reorganisation in 1908 saw the ASC matter addressed by the Adjutant General, with discussions continuing into 1909. The Defence Act of 1909 disbanded volunteer forces and established the Territorial Force, supported by conscription. Major General Alexander Godley’s appointment as Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces in December 1910 provided momentum for reform. In his first year, Godley revitalised the military’s organisational structure, made crucial command and staff appointments, and laid plans to develop the NZASC, which, though officially designated in May 1910, remained only a force on paper.[4]

Despite the Defence Stores Department’s existence since 1869, an ASC nucleus was lacking for forming new units. The proposed NZASC envisioned eight Transport and Supply Columns, divided into Mounted and Mixed Brigade units allocated to each of New Zealand’s four Military Districts and was to be organised by British ASC officer Henry Owen Knox, who arrived in New Zealand in June 1911 and later supported by four ASC officers and Warrant Offices from early 1913. While the NZASC would handle the procurement and distribution of rations, receipt and cooking remained a Regimental responsibility.

Under Godley’s command, the Territorial Army underwent rapid organisation, culminating in the inaugural brigade camps held in 1913. During these camps, the newly established NZASC established its initial depots, receiving supplies previously ordered by the Quartermaster General based on expected strength states and ration scales.

Forty-seven candidates across the Territorial Army were selected in October 1912 to undergo a comprehensive month-long training at Trentham. This pioneering catering course encompassed kitchen work and cooking techniques for field conditions, including practical exercises such as constructing and operating field ovens, fry pans, 8 and 20-gallon boilers and camp kettles.

Of the initial candidates, thirty-eight successfully qualified to supervise cooking for a regiment, with an additional seven attaining certification as company cooks. Unfortunately, two candidates were unable to qualify due to illness. For the 1913 camp, the establishment allowed for a Sergeant Cook per regiment, each granted an additional allowance of 1 Shilling 6 Pence a day (equivalent to 2024 NZD $16.16), while qualified company cooks received 1 Shilling a day (equivalent to 2024 NZD $10.10). Those who served as cooks during the camps were excused from further military training for the rest of the year.[5]

At Trentham, an additional course of instruction was conducted in October 1913, attended by sixty-two territorial soldiers. Thirty-two qualified as competent to supervise cooking for a regiment, making them eligible for appointment as sergeant cooks if vacancies existed within their units. Twenty-seven soldiers qualified as assistant or company cooks; unfortunately, three did not meet the qualifications.

By the end of 1913, this initiative provided the New Zealand Military with a potential pool of 104 trained cooks. However, it was recognised that further efforts were necessary to ensure a sufficient number of cooks would be available to meet the messing needs of the Territorial Force in the event of mobilisation.[6]

A System Under Strain, Lessons Unlearned in the Interwar Years

By the late 1930s, nearly two decades after the end of the First World War, there remained a persistent unease about the Army’s ability to feed its soldiers effectively. While institutional reforms had begun, contemporary commentary suggests that many of the fundamental issues experienced during the war had not yet been fully resolved.

A 1937 article in the Auckland Star, written by W. Revell Reynolds, provides a stark and unvarnished account of army catering during the First World War. Drawing on personal experience across training camps, Egypt, and Gallipoli, Reynolds described a system characterised not by scarcity, but by failure in execution.

Food, he noted, was often adequate at the point of issue, but was rendered unpalatable or even inedible through poor preparation. Cooks were frequently untrained and, in many cases, selected from those seeking to avoid frontline duties rather than for any culinary competence. Officers, for their part, were described as largely ignorant of catering and nutrition, with institutional focus placed elsewhere.

More concerning were allegations of systemic weaknesses in control and accountability. Reynolds pointed to instances of misappropriated allowances, questionable quality of supplied goods, and the hoarding or misallocation of rations. Whether exaggerated or not, such perceptions highlight a broader lack of confidence in the integrity of the supply and catering system at the time.

Perhaps most significantly, Reynolds drew a direct connection between poor nutrition and operational effectiveness. The absence of basic dietary components such as fresh vegetables, fats, and stimulants was linked to widespread illness, particularly dysentery and other gastrointestinal conditions, which were endemic in theatres such as Gallipoli. In this sense, catering was not merely a matter of comfort, but of survival.

Reynolds’ account suggests that the issue was not supply alone, but the absence of a professional system capable of turning rations into effective sustainment.

His concluding concern was forward-looking. Writing in 1937, Reynolds questioned how the Army intended to feed its soldiers in any future conflict, suggesting that without meaningful reform, the same deficiencies would re-emerge under the pressures of mobilisation.

The outbreak of the Second World War would force that reform. Under the pressures of mobilisation, the Army moved decisively toward a more professional, standardised, and controlled system of catering and supply, laying the foundations for the modern military catering capability.

The declaration of war and subsequent mobilisation halted any plans for further peacetime training of cooks, as all efforts shifted towards providing trained personnel for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force. The NZASC expanded its role at home and as part of the NZEF, taking on responsibility for bakeries and butcheries. However, despite ensuring the provision of necessary food items to units, cooking remained the responsibility of each unit. Cooks were trained at the Army School of Instruction at Trentham, with further training conducted at NZEF camps in the United Kingdom.In New Zealand, military and civilian cooks fulfilled the necessary messing functions at various mobilisation and Territorial Camps, while unit cooks supported units in the field.

Cooks with first frozen mutton received in the desert during WWI. Hood, D : Photographs relating to World War I and II. Ref: 1/2-067444-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23212994
Wellington Regiment cooker, and men, within 1000 yards of the front line, Colincamps, France. Royal New Zealand Returned and Services’ Association :New Zealand official negatives, World War 1914-1918. Ref: 1/2-013209-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22604005

During the interbellum period, the Army School of Instruction in Trentham ceased operations in 1921, with few records of formal training for Army cooks until 1938.

In 1937, the Special Reserve Scheme was introduced to provide personnel for the coast defence batteries and three infantry battalions of Fortress troops. Under this scheme, single soldiers underwent three months of continuous training, followed by a three-year commitment to attend training for 10 days annually, with an obligation to report for service within New Zealand in the event of a national emergency. During their three months of training, they were also allowed to attend technical college, free of charge, on a course of their choice. Facilitating the necessary training, the Army School of Instruction (ASI) was re-established at Trentham, supported by District Schools of Instruction (DSI) at Narrow Neck, Trentham, and Burnham.[7]

The first account of cooks participating in this training scheme saw a batch of seventy-two, nine of whom were cooks, enter Trentham in August 1938 for their initial military training, beginning their vocational training in January 1939 with three of the cooks going to Narrow Neck in Auckland and the other six to Fort Dorset.[8] Reviewing the work of the officers and men under his command, the Officer Command the Central Military District, Colonel E Puttick, commented in April 1939 that “there had never been any complaint about the food, and it was clear that the special reservists who had taken cookery training as their vocational course in the Army Training School at Trentham had received excellent instruction”.[9]

While Colonel Puttick may have been satisfied with the catering arrangements in his district, there was dissatisfaction with the quality of rations and cooks in the northern and Southern Districts. In May 1939, reports of sub-standard rations, the performance of civilian cooks at territorial Camps resulting in their packing up and walking out mid camp and the refusals of Territorial soldiers to work on mess fatigue parties led the District Commander, Colonel P.H Bell to call an all-day conference with his Quartermaster and Quartermaster Sergeants to consider the Army’s food problems, including the quality of rations and most importantly how to resolve the fundamental problem that the Army had no cooks of its own, engaging civilians for the period of camps. [10] In the Northern District, a deputation of civilian cooks led by Mr W. R Connolly, a cook with 37 years’ experience of cooking in military camps, went directly to the officer of the Star Newspaper with their grievances following a ten-day camp with A Squadron of the 4th Mounted Regiment. Joining the squadron on 3 May at Cambridge, they deployed to Rotorua, Tauranga, and Paeroa, finishing up at Narrow Neck on 12 May. The cook’s issue was that they were civilians contracted to work in a fixed camp and not on the march, and they were at much reduced rates than they had received before the depression.[11]

Despite these challenges, the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 prompted a renewed focus on army catering. On the declaration of war, it was decided that New Zealand would contribute an Expeditionary Force. Initially, a “Special Force” was planned, with one battalion in each of the three military districts. The Special Force was later expanded into the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2 NZEF).

Three weeks before the Special Force encamped at Trentham, Acting Prime Minister Mr Peter Fraser and Minister of Defence Mr Frederick Jones visited the site to inspect preparations for the new mobilisation camp. During their visit, the Commandant of the ASI, Major J I Brook, hosted them for lunch. Impressed by the meal, they specifically requested the Regular Force Mess diet sheet and received positive feedback from regular soldiers on the meal quality. The Ministers inquired about the possibility of providing similar meals to the men of the Special Force. In response, Major Brook suggested that providing the same meals to the Special Force could be achieved if cooks were available and ample rations were provided. Following this discussion, permission was granted to establish an Army School of Cookery under the ASI.[12]

By December 1939, under the tutelage of a fully qualified army cookery instructor, the first batch of thirty-two men had completed their training at the Army School of Cookery, with a second batch completing their training on 8 December. Initial training was on the standard equipment found in any camp, typically three ovens able to bake for 120 men. Once qualified in the basics of camp cooking, training on the Portable Cooker No. 1 and other field cookery followed.[13]

As the 2NZEF established itself in Egypt, the significance of quality cooking was duly recognised. Although the Cooks selected for the First Echelon underwent training courses at the Trentham School of Cookery,  they were not qualified cooks under Middle East conditions. They required instruction on breaking down bulk rations and handling food in the field, so arrangements were made to train New Zealand cooks at the Army School of Cookery in Cairo. Additionally, the services of a non-commissioned officer (NCO) from the 7th British Armoured Division was enlisted as an instructor to the 2 NZEF under the supervision of the Divisional Supply Column officer. With the second Echelon diverted to England, General Freyberg consulted the manager of the Lyons chain of restaurants, who was an adviser to the War Office on army catering, with arrangements made with the War Office in London for the secondment of four NCOs to the 2 NZEF to form the nucleus of the 2 NZEF cookery school. These NCOs accompanied the Second Echelon troops from England to Egypt.[14]

A typical New Zealand field cookhouse in the desert during World War II. New Zealand. Department of Internal Affairs. War History Branch :Photographs relating to World War 1914-1918, World War 1939-1945, occupation of Japan, Korean War, and Malayan Emergency. Ref: DA-00798-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23050225

With this reorganisation and expansion, the NZEF cookery school conducted thorough training and testing for cooks. Starting from February 1941, all cooks were required to be qualified either at the NZEF school or the Middle East school before being eligible for extra-duty pay.[15]

As the war progressed, the Army School of Cookery at Trentham continued to run regular courses. However, the demand for cooks necessitated the DSIs to conduct cookery instruction to train men as they were called up for the NZEF and Home Defence. In addition to male soldiers training as cooks, from 1939, the first females from Auckland Womans Service Corps were employed as cooks in Papakura Camp to supplement the civilian and military cooks. Although on the Army payroll, the initial female cooks were not considered serving soldiers. By June 1941, fifteen female cooks were working across all the Military districts. However, it was not until July 1942 that approval was given for the New Zealand Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC)  in New Zealand, formally establishing these female cooks as part of the military establishment.[16]

Cook from the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps putting meat in an oven to roast, for men at a World War II military camp in New Zealand. New Zealand Free Lance : Photographic prints and negatives. Ref: PAColl-8602-40. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22895614

By October 1942, three hundred men of the Territorial Force had received training at Ngawahiwaha Camp. The established ratio for cooks to troops was one cook for every 50 men, two for 100, three for 150, and an additional cook for every 100 additional men. Throughout the Army, the standard of cooking, in terms of variety and quality, had seen significant improvement. It was widely acknowledged that a properly trained army cook could secure employment in a civilian hotel or restaurant upon demobilisation.[17]

Sergeant “Paddy” Bourke, veteran army cook, turns the roast. He was in Egypt with the Expeditionary Force of a generation ago; (Evening Post, 13 April 1940). Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/17717327

In May 1944, the use of WACs as cooks had become a normalised and essential function of the war effort, with an article in the Dominion newspaper detailing the work of the 65 WAACs on the messing staff of Trentham Camp and providing details of the training of the latest batch of eighteen female cooks who had just completed a three-week cooking course the Trentham ASI.[18]It’s essential to recognise that New Zealand was not operating in isolation but rather observing developments across the armies of the British Empire as they transitioned from the regimental cook system to a more centralised and professional model. In the United Kingdom, the Cook trade was under the control of the Army Catering Corps (ACC) upon its creation in March 1941, forming as a subsidiary element of the Royal Army Service Corps Supply Branch. Australia followed suit in 1943, establishing the Australian Army Catering Corps. Canada took a similar approach, forming the Royal Canadian Army Service Corps (RCASC) Catering Wing at No. 1 Reinforcement Unit in Britain in August 1942 to train cooks for the Army.

A cook with the 22 New Zealand Battalion, stokes up his fire in the forward areas near Rimini, Italy, 21
September 1944 during World War II. New Zealand. Department of Internal Affairs. War History
Branch

The Canadian Army’s experience was that many cooks had previously been members of their unit. However, experience revealed that they were not necessarily skilled soldiers and often functioned as poor cooks tasked with feeding their comrades. Consequently, starting in 1942, all cooks were transferred to the RCASC, which then assigned them to the various units they were to serve. This change resulted in a rapid improvement in cooking standards.[19]  Although New Zealand had adopted other British logistical organisational changes, such as the formation of the Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, with enthusiasm, it was more reserved about any changes to its cooks, combining cooks into a single corps was not a wartime priority.

In 1944, New Zealand commenced the demobilisation process, which included disbanding the Home Guard and the standing down of elements of the Territorial Force. By the war’s conclusion in 1945, most of the forces stationed at home underwent rapid demobilisation. The 2NZEF was disbanded by 1946, aligning with the downsizing trend seen in many Western militaries. However, despite this size reduction, the Government and the Army hesitated to revert the military to its pre-war dimensions and structure. Instead, they opted to reorganise it into what became known as the Interim Army.

New Zeland Army Order 60/1947 of 1 August 1947 detailed the trade classification and promotion requirements of the Regular Force. This order retained cooks as two specific All Arms trades;

  • Cooks, Hospital. A Group A trade applicable to All Arms, including the New Zealand Army Nursing Service (NZANS)
  • Cooks (other than hospital cook). A Group B trade applicable to All Arms, including the NZWAAC

The Commandant of the ASI set the syllabus for the Cooks, hospital, and Cooks (other than hospital cooks). During his period, there was no steward’s trade.[20]

In 1947, three officers and four NCOs were brought out from Britain to raise the standards of catering in the New Zealand Army. This task included providing training and instruction in cooking and catering and guidance on ration scales and meal planning. With the New Zealand Army perceived as too small for a stand-alone Catering Corps, considering that the NZASC was responsible for the Supply function, Butchers and Bakers, it made sense to emulate the Canadian model and bring all cooks under the umbrella of the RNZASC.

To facilitate this transition, the Army Board approved the formation of a Catering Group as a section of the RNZASC. It issued New Zealand Army Instruction (NZAI) 2049 on 15 February 1948 detailing the Supplies and Transport Catering Group (STCG) formation. Initially, the STCG comprised of;

  • A Staff Officer (Catering) in the Directorate of Supplies and Transport at Army Headquarters.
  • District Catering advisers (NC0s) on the staff of the Districts Assistant Director Supply and Transport (ADST)
  • Instructors on the staff of the Army School of Instruction to operate a Catering Wing.
  • Cooks and kitchenhands on unit peace establishments.

The function of the STCG was to

  • To train and provide unit cooks and kitchen hands.
  • Instruction in and supervision of the management of the Army ration scale.
  • Improvement of standard of food preparation and cooking.
  • Advice on the installation and instruction in the operation of cooking appliances and kitchen equipment.
  • Advice on the layout of mess buildings.[21]

Despite NZAI 2049 bringing all army catering services under the jurisdiction of the RNZASC, the Cooks trade remained dispersed among various units. However, this issue was addressed with the implementation of NZAI 2147 in September 1948.[22]

No 2147. SUPPLIES AND TRANSPORT CATERING GROUP, RNZASC
NZAI 1319 and 2049 are hereby cancelled.

  1. Approval has been given for the formation of a catering Group in RNZASC.
    This group will be known as the Supplies and Transport Catering Group (abbreviated title STCG).
  2. The functions of the STCG are –
    a. To train and provide unit, &c, cooks and messing staffs.
    b. Instruction in and supervision of the management of the Army Ration Scale.
    c. The preparation, cooking and serving of all rations.
    d. Advise on the installation and instruction in the operation of cooking appliances and kitchen equipment.
    e. Advise on the layout of mess buildings.
  3. Initially the STCG will comprise-
    a. A Staff Officer (Catering) on the Directorate of Supplies and Transport at Army HQ.
    b. District catering advisers (NCOs) on the staff of ADs ST District.
    c. Instructors on the staff of ASI to operate a “Catering Wing”.
    d. Messing Staff of all units
  4. In order to implement para 3 above, the following action will be taken:-
    a. From the date of publication of this instruction soldiers classified as “kitchen hands” or “Mess Orderly” will be classified as “probationer cook” or “mess steward” respectively. The terms “kitchen hands” or “mess orderly” will no longer be used.
    NOTES: –
    (i) For star classification purposes “probationer cooks” will form the “learner: class of the group “B” trade of cook and will be treated as Group “D” tradesmen
    (ii) Whenever the term “messing staffs” is used in this instruction, it will included “cooks,” “probationary cooks,” and “mess stewards”
    b. All cooks, probationer cooks, and mess stewards, other than of the NZWAC, will be posted to RNZASC.
    c. All messing staffs. including NZWAC messing staffs, in districts will be carried on the establishments of district ASC Coys under the sub heading of STCG.
    d. OsC Districts will allot messing staffs to units on the recommendations of DA DsST.
    e. Messing staffs, including NZWAC messing staffs, of Army HQ units will be carried on the establishments of the respective units under the sub heading STCG.
  5. STCG messing staff strengths will be assessed according to unit messing strengths as follows:-
    a. Unit messing strengths will be taken as establishment strength less 20 per cent (to allow for personnel Living out).
    b. Cooks. – Cooks will be allocated to units on the following scale:
    i. One cook per unit all ranks (or portion thereof) on unit messing strength up to a total of 650.
    ii. One extra cook p er 90 all ranks (or portion thereof) on unit messing strength in excess of 650.
    iii. One extra cook for each cookhouse in excess of one.
    iv. In addition, one chief cook (WO or NCO) for each unit. The rank of this WO or NCO shall be dependent on the strength of the messing staff serving in the unit concerned,
    in accordance with the scale laid down in para 6 below.
    c. Probationer Cooks:-
    i. Two probationer cooks to each kitchen where cooking is carried out for messing strength of 65 or under.
    ii. Four probationer cooks to each kitchen where cooking is carried out for messing strength in excess of 65
    d. Mess Stewards:
    i. One mess steward for each 25 all ranks (or portion thereof) on unit messing strength.
    ii. In addition, one mess steward for each 6 officers (or portion thereof) on unit messing strength up to a total of 42 officers.
    iii. When the number of officers exceeds 42, one extra mess steward for each 9 officers ( or portion thereof) on unit strength in excess of 42).
    iv. Mess stewards in any mess to include at least one NCO, except when total number of mess stewards is less than 3.
  6. In calculating ranks of messing staff, the following guide will be used: In every 69 messing staff OR’s carried on establishment under STCG there may be 21 NCOs from Corporal upwards on the following scale:
    One Warrant Officer.
    Two Staff Sergeants.
    Six Sergeants.
    Twelve Corporals.
  7. The chief cook in any unit will rank as the senior member of the messing staff, irrespective of the rank of the senior mess steward. He will be responsible for:
    a. The proper functioning of the messing staff.
    b. Close co-operation with the unit messing officer.
    c. Training of probationer cooks.
  8. Amended establishments will be issued shortly.
New Zealand Army Instruction 2147, 15 September 1948

With this new directive, New Zealand Army cooks (NZWAC cooks and stewards, which remained a separate corps but were under technical control of the RNZASC for catering purposes, until 1977 when they joined the RNZASC) were finally consolidated into a single corps, allowing for a standardised training syllabus. Additionally, to enhance the catering function and provide a comprehensive messing service, the Stewards trade was formalised as part of the RNZASC. By the end of 1948, the groundwork had been laid for the RNZASC Catering trade to support the evolving New Zealand army.

In conclusion, the evolution of Army catering in New Zealand from 1845 to 1948 reflects a journey marked by adaptability, innovation, and a commitment to sustaining the morale and effectiveness of New Zealand’s military forces. During this period, New Zealand’s military catering underwent a significant transformation from rudimentary messing arrangements in the early militia days. However, the importance of well-fed troops was consistently recognised, as evidenced by the efforts to improve messing arrangements, the establishment of training programs for cooks, and the integration of civilian and military personnel into the catering function. Despite challenges such as dissatisfaction with rations and the shortage of trained cooks, the New Zealand Army continually sought to enhance its catering capabilities, particularly in response to the demands of wartime mobilisation.
The establishment of the Army School of Cookery, the integration of female cooks into the military establishment, and the adoption of international best practices, such as those observed in the British and Canadian armies, demonstrate New Zealand’s commitment to modernising its catering services and ensuring the provision of quality meals for its troops.
By consolidating army catering services under the RNZASC umbrella and formalising the Cooks and Stewards trades, the New Zealand Army laid the groundwork for a more structured and professional catering function as the country transitioned into the post-war era. By 1948, the stage was set for the RNZASC Catering trade to play a pivotal role in supporting the evolving needs of the New Zealand army, reflecting a legacy of culinary excellence and dedication to service.

Notes

[1] “Newtown Park Camp (Inquiry into Conduct of),” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1901 Session I, H-19a  (1901).

[2] “New Zealand Contingent (No 1): Extracts from Reports by Major Robin, Commanding New Zealand Contingent, to Officer Commanding Forces,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1900 Session I, H-06a  (1900).

[3] J Babington, “Defence Forces of New Zealand (Report on the) by Major General J.M Babington, Commandant of the Forces.,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1904 Session I, H-19  (1904).

[4] Based on the British logistics system the NZASC was to be responsible for the Transport and the supply of forage, rations and fuel. The supply and maintenance of all small-arms, ammunition, accoutrements, clothing, and field equipment Stores was to remain a responsibility of the Defence Stores Department which in 1917 became the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps. Robert McKie, “Unappreciated Duty: The Forgotten Contribution of New Zealand’s Defence Stores Department in Mobilising the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in 1914: A Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in History at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand” (Massey University, 2022).

[5] “H-19 Report on the Defence Forces of New Zealand for the Period 28 June 1912 to 20 June 1913,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives  (1913).

[6] “Military Forces of New Zealand (Report by the Inspector General of Ther Overseas Forces on the),” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1914 Session I, H-19a  (1914).

[7] “H-19 Military Forces of New Zealand, Annual Report of the Chief of the General Staff,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, (1938).

[8] “Vocational Training,” Wairarapa Times-Age, , 17 January 1939.

[9] “Military Camps,” Evening Post, Volume CXXVII, Issue 80, , 5 April 1939.

[10] “Army Cooks,” Auckland Star, Volume LXX, Issue 103, , 4 May 1939.

[11] “Walked out Army Cooks,” Auckland Star, Volume LXX, Issue 114, , 17 May 1939.

[12] “Soldier Cooks,” King Country Chronicle, Volume XXXIII, Issue 4856,, 1 November 1939.

[13] “Diet for Troops,” King Country Chronicle, Volume XXXIII, Issue 4856,, 1 December 1939.

[14] William Graham McClymont, To Greece, vol. 4 (War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1959), 23.

[15] Thomas Duncan MacGregor Stout, New Zealand Medical Services in Middle East and Italy, vol. 12 (War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1956), 47.

[16] Iris Latham, The Waac Story (Wellington, New Zealand1986), 1-4.

[17] “Moral Builders NZ Army Cooks,” Bay of Plenty Times, Volume LXXI, Issue 13760,, 1 October 1942.

[18] “Waac’s New Role,” Dominion, Volume 37, Issue 207, , 30 May 1944.

[19] Arnold Warren, Wait for the Waggon: The Story of the Royal Canadian Army Service Corps (McClelland, 1961).

[20] “Special New Zealand Army Order 60/1947 – the Star Classification and Promotion of Other Ranks of Ther Regular Force,”(1947).

[21] “New Zealand Army Instruction 2049 – Supplies and Transport Catering Group, Rnzasc,”(1948).

[22] “New Zealand Army Instruction 2147 – Supplies and Transport Catering Group, Rnzasc,”(1948).

Lessons from History: New Zealand Military Procurement and Logistics 1857-1861

1 Comment

The object is to make these forces (New Zealand Militia and Volunteer Forces) as effective as possible against irregular infantry, whose mode of warfare is skirmishing on broken ground, generally covered in fern and scrub”.

Memoradium Frederick Whittaker to Colonial Secertary, 27 April 1860

The military logistics history of New Zealand in the 19th century unfolds as a saga of strategic vision, administrative challenges, and coordination amidst escalating tensions and clashes between settlers and Māori in the mid-1800s. This era was characterised by legislative endeavours, notably marked by the passage of the Militia Act of 1858 by the New Zealand Parliament. At the heart of implementing this legislation were the logistical requisitions directed towards Hebbert and Co, a London-based military outfitter with extensive contracts across various British territories. These requisitions underscored the planning and resource allocation needed to equip New Zealand’s burgeoning militia and volunteer forces.

The initial requisition, initiated in June 1859, marked the first step towards enhancing the colony’s defensive capabilities. It encompassed a comprehensive array of arms, ammunition, and accoutrements, reflecting the latest standards utilised by the British Army and deemed essential for military readiness. Subsequent requisitions, driven by evolving strategic needs and logistical deficiencies, further highlighted the intricacies of managing the supply chain within a colonial context.

Recognising the broader implications for contemporary military logisticians is imperative for grasping the significance of these requisitions. Beyond their historical narrative, procurement, transportation, and inventory management complexities offer timeless insights into the enduring challenges logistics professionals face in ensuring operational readiness. As we delve deeper into the complexities of these requisitions and their outcomes, it becomes evident that the legacy of strategic foresight and logistical prowess perseveres. The lessons extracted from this historical chapter stand as a testament to the enduring relevance of effective logistical planning and execution in military operations, both past and present.

Preparing for conflict

The escalating tensions between settlers and Māori and the lessons of the conflicts of 1845/6 led to the acceptance that a robust force capable of deployment throughout New Zealand was necessary. In response, in May 1858, the New Zealand Parliament enacted the Militia Act of 1858. This legislation maintained the Militia’s role in defending fixed locations, obliging all eligible men to serve within their designated areas. However, it also introduced provisions for establishing volunteer units, granting them the flexibility to operate anywhere in the colony and exempting their members from militia duty. [1]

The Act restructured the country into militia districts supported by a small permanent training staff. It established a central command hub in Auckland, administered by Captain (later Lieutenant Colonel) Henry Colin Balneavis as the Deputy Adjutant General of Militia and Volunteers.[2]

Colonel Balneavis, circa 1900, by William Francis Gordon, Hartley Webster. Purchased 1916. Te Papa (O.011955/02)

Since the inception of the first New Zealand Militia units in 1845, the government had assumed responsibility for supplying arms and equipment to the Militia. The supply of Arms and equipment was initially sourced through commercial purchases and government sources such as the Colonial Store in Australia, the Ordnance Department and British Regiments, including 500 flint muskets acquired and distributed in 1845. However, as Militia units were disbanded, arms on distribution to the Militia were recalled and returned to the local magistrate, police or Ordnance Stores for safekeeping.[3] In August 1850, Major General George Dean Pitt, the Commander of the forces 1848-51, initiated a military enhancement program, which included upgrades to Wellington’s Mount Cook Barracks, Auckland’s Albert Barracks, and Fort Britomart. As part of this initiative, he also requested 500 percussion muskets from England to replace 500 flint muskets then stored by the Ordnance Store on behalf of the New Zealand Government. In May 1852, the 500 flint muskets were returned to England, while the new percussion weapons remained in the Ordnance Store.[4] However, many more Flint muskets inevitably remained in storage in the provinces.

While the Ordnance Store and British Regiments were naturally considered the primary source of military supplies for the colony, their capacity to provide stores during peacetime was constrained by an order issued by Lord Panmure, the Secretary of State for War, on 17th April 1856.[5] This directive stipulated that supplies could only be allocated to the colonial government following approval from the Secretary of State for War. However, in cases of emergency declared by the Governor, stores could be released under the condition that the colonial government reimbursed the British Government for the expenses incurred, including a 15% fee for packaging, transportation, warehousing, etc.

Panmure’s directive came into question in March 1857 when Colonel Robert Wynyard of the 58th Regiment imported 1,600 percussion rifles and 669,000 rounds of ball ammunition. Since these goods arrived before Balneavis assumed the role of Militia adjutant, the distribution of these arms remains somewhat ambiguous. Nevertheless, records indicate that 200 weapons were assigned to the Taranaki Militia, while the allocation of 1,000 rifles to Auckland was less transparent. This issue was eventually resolved, affirming the New Zealand Government’s responsibility for providing and supplying militia stores to its military and volunteer forces.

From May 1858, Balneavis began taking on charge government arms held in the 58th Regiment Armoury and the Ordnance Store, yielding varying results. During the handover of arms from the 58th armoury in May 1858, Balneavis only received 200 percussion muskets, 66 flint muskets, and 12 cases containing cutlasses, boarding spikes, old belts and other assorted accoutrements. However, the arms taken on charge from the Ordnance Store proved more fruitful. Balneavis acquired the 500 percussion muskets received in 1852 and four cases containing 120 percussion carbines with bayonets, scabbards, and additional equipment. The carbines, unused and in pristine condition, were of the same type utilised by the Auckland Police. However, there was no record of how they had been incorporated into Government service. It was speculated that they might have been included in a batch brought to New Zealand by Governor Grey in 1846 for settlers or friendly Māori. However, they were placed into the Ordnance Stores and remained unissued.

Fuelled by the potential of escalating conflict in Taranaki, the Militia experienced a resurgence, along with the formation of volunteer units, prompting the Legislative Council to place a requisition in June 1859 for arms and accoutrements on London merchants Messrs Hebbert and Co to meet its commitment to supply all militia and volunteer forces.

Messrs Hebbert and Co, a London-based military outfitter/contractor established in 1815, held contracts with Her Majesty’s Home, Indian, and Colonial Governments. Initially focused on army clothing, accoutrements, and cap-making, they also brokered contracts with external manufacturers for equipment they did not produce. In addition to their contracts with colonial governments like New Zealand, Messrs Hebbert and Co supplied items to the Confederate Navy during the United States Civil War.

First Requisition

Sent by the fastest mail to Britain in June 1859, the first requisition consisted of the following items:

  • 500 (increased to 1000) Rifles of the most improved type used by Her Majesty’s troops, with Sword Bayonets, Belts and Pouches
  • 100000 (increased to 200000) Rounds of Ball Cartridges
  • 200000 (increased to 400000) Percussion Caps, and
  • 25000 (increased to 50000) Blank rounds.

Hebbert and Co confirmed receipt of the requisition on 18 October 1859. Although, at this early stage, they could not confirm the manufacturing details, the suggestion was made that to mitigate any possible rejections taking place in Auckland and the inability to provide replacements prior to delivery, inspections under the direction of General Charles Hay, the Commander and Inspector General of Musketry be arranged and on the recommendation of the Deputy Adjutant General of Militia and Volunteers, the New Zealand Government approved this course of action.

Second Requisition

In January 1860, the issue of inadequate arms supply in the colony was brought to the attention of the Colonial Secretary. Given the burgeoning formation of Volunteer and Militia units, it became evident that the current order for rifles would not suffice. Moreover, while Cavalry Arms had been procured for 200 men, there was a pressing need for more to equip the additional Volunteer Cavalry Corps in the process of being established.

Believing that Percussion Muskets might be available in the Military or Government Stores in Australia, arranging for arms to be temporarily lent to New Zealand and returned once the rifles arrived was considered an option. Additionally, a small quantity of rifles and revolvers from Sydney and Melbourne were purchased at a reasonable cost. Ultimately, on 27th April 1860, a decision was made to supplement the initial requisition with a second rerquistions for additional arms, accoutrements and ammunition.:

  • 1000 Rifles and accoutrements to arm Militia and volunteers.
  • 300 arms and accoutrements for Cavalry Volunteers, the desired arms been.
    • 200 Revolving Carbines
    • 100 Revolving Pistols with movable shoulder stocks
  • 500000 Rounds of Ball Cartridges
  • 805000 Percussion Caps
  • 50000 Blank rounds

Additionally, separate from the primary requisition, an order for six Prize revolvers was placed on 28 April 1860.[6] These requisitions were acknowledged by Hebbert and Co on 19 May 1860, noting that communications with General Hay confirming that the Rifles were to be the same pattern as the ones to be supplied for the first order, the type of Carbines was yet to be decided.

Third Requisition

On 3 July 1860, a third request for an additional order of 1000 rifles and accoutrements was placed with Hebbert and Co, bringing the total purchase to 3000. Hebbert and Co acknowledged receipt of this third requisition on 26 September 1860, confirming that the order for rifles would be expedited without delay.

However, Hebbert and Co informed that, upon the advice of General Hay, work on manufacturing revolving carbines had ceased. It was determined that no existing model of revolving carbine was suitable for military purposes, and those produced for civilian use had been discontinued. Consequently, it was decided to replace revolving carbines with a superiorly manufactured breech-loading carbine.

The carbines eventually selected by General Hay were of the type then in use by the Indian Cavalry, resembling the pattern of artillery carbines issued by the British Government. These carbines offered several advantages, including compatibility with the bore, cartridges, and caps used for the rifles. Their sights were initially set for 300 yards but could easily be adjusted for 500 to 600 yards.

Cavalry Carbine. Terry Shattock Collection

The rifles produced by Hollis & Sheath of Birmingham for New Zealand were the latest .577-inch calibre rifles developed under General Hay’s direction. This updated design incorporated changes to the stock and barrel length and weight, rifling, and other specifications, resulting in a firearm that boasted improved accuracy and a more extended range compared to the earlier Enfield pattern. However, these modifications to the rifle design and the necessary adjustments to manufacturing machinery caused production delays. Consequently, instead of delivering the rifles in a single consignment for each requisition, the delivery schedule was divided into seven consignments. The first of these consignments was dispatched from England on 25 August 1860, with the final shipment reaching New Zealand on 19 October 1861.

Hay Pattern Rifle. Terry Shattock Collection

Logistics Preparation to receive arms

As the Deputy Adjutant General of Militia and Volunteers, Balneavis, with a small staff based in the Militia armoury at Albert Barracks, undertook multiple administrative and organisational tasks to establish the various units and satisfy the many requests for equipment submitted by unit commanders.

As the tempo of work in receiving and distributing equipment increased during 1860, assisting Balneavis as militia and volunteer storekeeper was his Sergeant Major and Clerk John Mitchell.[7] Initially employed in 1856, Mitchell was formally employed as a sergeant in May 1858. In recognition of the additional work required in organising and equipping the Militia and Volunteers, Mitchell was awarded an annual salary increase of £80 in 1861.[8] Additional assistance was provided to Balneavis and Mitchell by Mr T Gibbins, who had been employed as an arms cleaner and labourer since January 1859.[9] In October 1861, James Bloomfield joined Balneavis staff as a clerk, remaining part of the Defence Stores until December 1888. [10] To manage periods of increased activity, Balneavis regularly sought permission to hire additional arms cleaners to help with the upkeep of the Arms and Accoutrements in the Militia Armoury. For instance, on 5 December 1861, he submitted a request to employ three arms cleaners at a rate of five shillings per day (equivalent to approximately NZD $9.21 in 2024) for the month. This request was granted on 10th December.[11]

In anticipation of receiving Arms and Accoutrements, on 25th February 1861, Balneavis sought authorisation for the Colonial Secretary to inspect and mark arms arriving from England with a number and to carry out necessary alterations to accoutrements. Regarding the marking of arms, Balneavis obtained a quotation from Auckland gunsmith David Evitt, who proposed a cost of six shillings each (equivalent to approximately NZD $9.21 in 2024) to number up to 4000 arms, including Bayonets, Muzzle Stoppers, and ramrods. The Colonial Secretary sanctioned this proposal on 9th April 1861.[12]

Tawera Shipment

The initial batch of rifles comprised 410 units, with 200 being inspected on 10 August and 210 on 25 August by an armourer sergeant provided by General Hay. Each rifle underwent disassembly, with the locks examined and sights tested. Subsequently, 40 rifles underwent testing by General Hay himself. Throughout this process, 18 rifles were rejected, prompting a reduction of the consignment to 390 to avoid having a partial box of 2 rifles. The first consignment consisted of:

  • 390 Rifles, General Hay Pattern, Calibre .577 in
  • 390 Bayonets
  • 390 Bayonet Scabbards
  • 1000 Muzzle Stoppers
  • Extras for 1000 Rifles
    • 100 Lock Vice Nipple Keys
    • 100 Jags (Ball Drawer)
    • 1000 Nipples
    • 100 Snap Caps
    • 500 Snap Cap leather
    • 100 Muzzle Stoppers
  • Rifle Accoutrements
    • 360 Black Leather Pouches – 50 Rounds
    • 360 Black Leather Pouch Belts
    • 360 Black Leather waist Belts with Brass Snake hook Furniture
    • 180 Black Leather Frogs
    • 360 Black Leather Ball Bags with Oil Bottles
    • 360 Black Leather Cap Pockets
    • 360 Black Leather Gun Slings with Brass Buckles
  • Ammunition
    • 200000 Rounds Ball Cartridges
    • 50000 Rounds Blank Cartridges
    • 400000 Percussion Caps
Extracr from the Tawera Invoice

The consignment was packed into 51 cases for transport on the Brigantine Tawera, departing Gravesend on 5 September 1860. The Tawera arrived in Auckland on 22 December 1860.[13]

Included in this consignment was the order for the six Adams Pattern 54 Bore revolvers, with Bullet moulds, extra nipples, and cleaning rods specially engraved with names and inscriptions.[14]

A presentation Beaumont-Adams. Puke Ariki Accession number A57.362
A presentation Beaumont-Adams. Puke Ariki Accession number A57.362

On receipt in New Zealand, the consignment was inspected by Balneavis, who noted that the consignment had been received in good order except for some Bayonets, which required fitting, and some rifles required cleaning, which was done.

Sevilla Shipment

On 21 September, General Hay’s team inspected the second batch of 320 rifles, with 10 Rifles rejected. The consignment that was packed into 38 cases consisted of

  • 310 Rifled General Hay Pattern with Snap Caps
  • 310 Bayonets
  • 310 Bayonet Scabbards
  • Rifle Accoutrements
    • 180 Black Waxed leather frogs to complete 360 sets sent on the Tawera
    • 340 Black waxed Leather Pouches – 50 rounds
    • 340 Black waxed Leather Pouch Belts
    • 340 Black waxed Leather waist Belts
    • 340 Black waxed frogs
    • 340 Black waxed Ball bags and Oil Bottles
    • 340 Black waxed Leather Cap Pockets
    • 340 Black waxed Leather Gun Slings[15]
Extract from the Sevilla Invoice

In addition to  the Arms, accoutrements and ammunition associated with the existing requisitions, the Sevilla had also loaded an additional consignment of 76 cases of Breech-loading Carbines and ammunition ordered on behalf of the Government by Gilfillan and Company consisting of:

  • 45 Calisher & Terry Breech Loading Carbines
  • 34000 rounds of Breech-loading ammunition
  • 68000 Percussion Caps

These constituted part of a requisition placed on merchants Gilfillan and Company by the New Zealand Government on 4 April 1860 for One Hundred Revolving Carbines. [16] However, Gilfillan and Co failed to procure any Revolving Carbines and instead provided 100 Terry Breech Loading Carbines, which were delivered in three instalments.

  • First Instalment – 20 Calisher & Terry Breech Loading Carbines from Sydney on the Kate, received on 8 May 1860
  • Second Instalment – 45 Calisher & Terry Breech Loading Carbines from the United Kingdom on the Sevilla, received on 22 April 1861
  • Third Instalment – 35 Calisher & Terry Breech Loading Carbines from the United Kingdom on the Bosworth, received on 22 April 1861
Example of a Calisher & Terry .30 bore breech loading percussion carbine. Puke Ariki Accession number A76.911

Loaded onto the barque Sevilla, this consignment of Hay Rifles and accoutrements departed London and, as part of the build-up of Imperial troops in New Zealand, called into Queenstown (now Cork, Ireland) on 20 October to embark two officers and 110 men of the 14th Regiment, along with 20 saloon passengers. After a lengthy voyage of 128 days, the Sevilla anchored in Auckland Harbour on 25 February 1861.

After the unloading of the Sevilla, on 22 April, Lieutenant Colonel Balneavis chaired two inspection boards, with Captain Campbell, the Adjutant of the Auckland Militia, and Lieutenant Wayne of the Auckland Cavalry Guard serving as members. Their task was to thoroughly examine and report on the arms, accoutrements, and ammunition received from England on the Sevilla. [17]

The board’s inspection of the 310 rifles and accoutrements confirmed that the consignment was accurate and of satisfactory quality, noting that an earlier Board Consisting of Captain Campbell, Adjutant 1st Battalion Auckland Regiment and Captain Joyce Adjutant Auckland Volunteers had condemned five rifles on 14 March due to damage caused by rust.[18]

Inspecting the carbines, accoutrements, and ammunition, the board noted that, in comparison to a consignment of 20 Calisher & Terry Breech-loading carbines received from Sydney on the Kate on 8 May 1860, the carbines received from England, while serviceable, were of somewhat inferior quality, this indicates the consignment of carbines from England were Terry’s Breech-loading carbines. Nevertheless, they met the requirements for inspection. The ammunition was deemed suitable; however, it was observed that the inserts in the pouches designed for fitting cartridges were too small to accommodate the carbine ammunition adequately. Though still functional, they would require modification for optimal use.[19]

Bosworth Shipment

In October, General Hay’s team inspected the remaining rifles needed to fulfil the initial requisition of 1000 rifles. On 6 October, 300 rifles were inspected, but 12 were rejected. Another ten rifles underwent inspection on 15 October and passed. Together with the two rifles held over from the first consignment, this completed the consignment of 300 rifles.

The final consignment included the remaining equipment from the first requisition and the total amount of ammunition from the second requisition. These items were packed into 36 cases, comprising:

  • 300 Rifles General Hay Pattern
  • 300 Bayonets
  • 300 Bayonet Scabbards
  • Rifle Accoutrements
    • 300 Black waxed Leather Pouches – 50 rounds
    • 300 Black waxed Leather Pouch Belts
    • 300 Black waxed Leather waist Belts
    • 300 Black waxed frogs
    • 300 Black waxed Ball bags and Oil Bottles
    • 300 Black waxed Leather Cap Pockets
    • 300 Black waxed Leather Gun Slings
  • Ammunition
    • 500000 Rounds Ball Cartridges
    • 50000 Rounds Blank Cartridges
    • 805000 Percussion Caps[20]
Extract from the Bosworth Invoice

In addition to  the Arms, accoutrements and ammunition associated with the existing requisitions, the Bosworth had also loaded an additional consignment of 193 cases of Terry Breech-loading Carbines and ammunition ordered on behalf of the Government by Gilfillan and Company consisting of

  • 35 Terry Breech Loading Carbines contained in 5 cases
  • An unknown quantity of Breech Loading Carbine ammunition in 188 cases[21]

These consignments were transported on the vessel Bosworth, sailing from Gravesend and arriving in Auckland on 6 March 1861, making the passage from England in 108 days.

After the unloading process on the Bosworth, Lieutenant Colonel Balneavis chaired two inspection boards, with Captain Campbell, the Adjutant of the Auckland Militia, and Lieutenant Wayne of the Auckland Cavalry Guard serving as members. Their task was to thoroughly examine and report on the arms, accoutrements, and ammunition received from England on the Bosworth.

The board’s inspection of the 300 rifles, ammunition, and accessories confirmed that the consignment was accurate and satisfactory. However, it was noted that one keg of rifle ammunition, containing 700 rounds and caps, was missing, presumably lost during transit. The ship’s agent reimbursed the government for the missing keg with a cheque of £3.9.6. (2024 NZD $1067.55) [22]

Upon inspecting the carbines, accoutrements, and ammunition, the board noted that in comparison to a consignment of 20 Terry’s Breech-loading carbines received from Sydney on the Kate on 8 May 1860, the carbines received from England, while serviceable, were of somewhat inferior quality. Nevertheless, they met the requirements for inspection. The ammunition was deemed suitable; however, it was observed that the inserts in the pouches designed for fitting cartridges were too small to accommodate the carbine ammunition adequately. Though still functional, they would require modification for optimal use.[23]

African Shipment

As the Bosworth was midway through its voyage, preparations were underway to dispatch the first batch of rifles from the second requisition. On 21 December 1860, General Hay reported that 720 rifles had undergone testing and met the required standards; thus, they were accepted. The consignment, packed into 105 cases, was scheduled for shipment on the vessel African. It included additional stores and accoutrements for 1000 rifles and 300 carbines.:

  • 720 Rifles General Hay Pattern
  • 720 Bayonets
  • 1000 Bayonet Scabbards
  • 1000 Muzzle Stoppers
  • Extras for 1000 Rifles
    • 100 Lock Vice Nipple Keys
    • 100 Jags
    • 1000 Nipples
    • 100 Snap Caps
    • 500 Snap Cap leather
    • 100 Muzzle Stoppers
  • Rifle Accoutrements
    • 1000 Black waxed Leather Pouches – 50 rounds
    • 1000 Black waxed Leather Pouch Belts
    • 1000 Black waxed Leather waist Belts
    • 1000 Black waxed frogs
    • 1000 Black waxed Ball bags and Oil Bottles
    • 1000 Black waxed Leather Cap Pockets
    • 1000 Black waxed Leather Gun Slings
  • 300 Cavalry Swords, Steel Moulded with Steel Scabbard
  • Cavalry Accoutrements
    • 300 Patent Leather pouches – 20 Rounds
    • 300 Buff Leather Pouch Belt
    • 300 Buff Leather Carbine Swivel Heads and carriages
    • 300 Buff Leather Waist Belts
    • 300 Buff Leather Cap Pockets
    • 300 Brown Leather Ball Bags
    • 300 Brown Leather Ball Bag Slings
    • 300 Brown Leather Ball Bag Slings
    • 300 Brown Leather Carbine Pockets
    • 300 Brown Leather Carbine Pocket Straps
    • 300 Buff Leather Sword Knots[24]
Extract of the African Invoice

Scheduled to depart from Gravesend on 2 January 1861, the African encountered delays due to being icebound in St. Katherine’s Dock. Consequently, its departure was postponed until 8 February, arriving in Auckland on 7 June 1861. Alongside the transportation of New Zealand Arms and Accoutrements, the African also accommodated two officers from the 57th Regiment of Foot and a contingent of logistics personnel destined for New Zealand as part of the Imperial reinforcements. This contingent included Deputy Assistant Commissary General Innes, five Commissariat officers and their families, two members of the Armourers Corps, five Royal Artillery Conductors, two Stores Clerks, and one Purveyor’s Clerk.

Waterlily Shipment

Departing London on 11 February 1861 and arriving in Auckland on 18 June, the Schooner Waterlily carried the following items ordered on the second requisition.

  • 100 Best Plain Adams Revolvers with all the latest improvements, 54 Guage
  • 100 Movable Stocks with fittings
  • 10 Bullet Moulds to cast two conical Bullets
  • 10 Cleaning Rods with Jags
  • 10 Nipple Keys
  • 10 Turnscrews
  • 10 Powder Flasks with regulated tops
  • 200 Nipples
  • Revolver Ammunition
    • 30000 Pistol Cartridges
    • 45000 Caps Percussion[25]
Extract of the Waterlily Invoice
Beaumont-Adams with stock. Puke Ariki Accession number A73.333
A flat rectangular wooden case for an Adams patent revolver. The case is lined with green felt and contains the revolver, a wooden skeleton stock, a cleaning rod, two bags of bullets and a wooden percussion cap phial. Puke Ariki Accession number A73.334

Broadwater Shipment

On 4 January 1861, General Hay reported that 303 Rifles had been tested, with 21 rifles rejected, prompting a reduction of the consignment to 280 rifles to avoid having a partial box of 2 rifles. This batch of 280 completed the rifle order for the second requisition. Added to this was an additional batch of 290 rifles of the third requisition, which had also been tested and passed, making a total consignment of 570 rifles for dispatch on the Broadwater. The total consignment consisted of:

  • 570 Rifles General Hay Pattern
  • 570 Bayonets
  • 1000 Bayonet Scabbards
  • Accoutrements for 1000 Rifles
    • 1000 Black waxed Leather Pouches – 50 rounds
    • 1000 Black waxed Leather Pouch Belts
    • 1000 Black waxed Leather waist Belts
    • 1000 Black waxed frogs
    • 1000 Black waxed Ball bags and Oil Bottles
    • 1000 Black waxed Leather Cap Pockets
    • 1000 Black waxed Leather Gun Slings[26]
Extract from Broadwater Invoice

After departing Gravesend on 3 April and a voyage of 114 days, the Broadwater arrived in Auckland on 29 July.

Northumberland Shipment

Following the final acceptance tests by General Hay of the final batches of Rifles and Carbines, the consignment was prepared and included spare parts for the entire 3000 rifles and 300 Carbines supplied. Packed into 98 cases, the consignment consisted of:

  • 710 Rifles General Hay Pattern
  • 710 Bayonets
  • Extras for 1000 Rifles
    • 100 Lock Vice Nipple Keys
    • 100 Jags
    • 1000 Nipples
    • 100 Snap Caps
    • 500 Snap Cap leather
  • Extras for 3000 Rifles
    • 15 Rough Stock15 Stocks complete15 Sights60 Finished Hammers60 Hammers in the rough90 Tumbler Pins60 Main Springs60 Sears30 Forged Main Springs60 Sear Springs30 Tumblers15 Bridles60 Left Lock Pins60 Lock Swivels30 Left Bands60 Left Nail30 Rammers30 Bayonets60 Bayonet Rings9 Guards in the rough15 Trigger Plates30 Trigger Plates30 Butt Swivels30 Band Swivels30 Hammer Springs45 Sets Wood Screws
    • 150 Light slides
  • 300 Cavalry Carbines Rifled sighted to 300 yards, to pattern selected by General Hay
  • Extras for 300 Carbines
    • 30 Cramp Keys300 Nipples30 Jags30 Snap caps30 Muzzle stoppers150 Snap Cap Leather2 Finished Stocks2 Sights5 Hammers10 Hammers in the rough10 Tumbler Pins5 Sets Wood Screes8 Main Springs4 Main Springs in the rough8 Sear Springs8 Sears3 Tumblers2 Bridles8 Sets lock Pins10 Lock Swivels3 Bands5 Rammers5 Rammer Springs1 Guard and 2 Trigger Plates4 Triggers3 Slide Bars10 Rings for Bars
    • 3 Rough Stocks[27]
Extract from Northumberland Invoice

This shipment, delivering the final items of the three requisitions initiated in June 1859, departed London on 10 May 1861 on the vessel Northumberland, arriving in Auckland on 13 September 1861.

As with other shipments, on 19 October, Balneavis assembled a board consisting of Captain Campbell, the Adjutant of the 1st Battalion Auckland Militia and Captain Wilson, the Adjutant of the 2nd Battalion Auckland Militia, to examine and report on the stores landed from the Northumberland. Their report concluded that the consignment was of sound and serviceable quality and that the rifles and Carbines received bore the same as rifles received in previous shipments.[28]

Cost

As detailed in Table One, the aggregate expenditure for all arms and accoutrements procured from Hebbert and Co amounted to £22,272.16.1 (equivalent to 2024 NZD $6,797,770.77). While existing appropriations covered the expenses for the prize pistols, the remaining costs for arms and accoutrements were charged against the 1860 War Loan.

Table One: Arms, Accoutrements and Ammunition procured from Hebbert and Co

Given New Zealand’s constrained revenue, the government found the Taranaki conflict financially challenging. Consequently, in September 1860, a War Loan of £150,000 (2024 NZD $46,765,267.07) was raised to address expenses associated with the conflict, encompassing costs incurred from 1857 up to September 1860.[29]

Table Two: Expenditure on Arms, Accoutrements and Ammunition against the 1860 War Loan
 

Distribution

Since assuming the role of Deputy Adjutant General, Balneavis faced a significant challenge due to his lack of comprehensive information on the total inventory of arms belonging to the New Zealand government and their distribution. However, by September 1860, returns from the districts detailed in Table 3 revealed that 3,417 arms of various types were distributed across all districts.[31]

Table 3 – Distribution of Arms belonging to the Government of New Zealand, 1 September 1860

With this information in hand, Balneavis could confirm the following:

  • Militia units were adequately equipped.
  • Volunteer Cavalry in the Auckland Province were armed with revolvers, breech-loading rifles, and swords.
  • Volunteer Rifle Corps in Auckland and Taranaki were also equipped.
  • Apart from the Auckland and Taranaki units listed above, no other Volunteer Corps across New Zealand were armed.
  • Approximately 550 rounds of ball ammunition were available for every rifle in use, with Taranaki and Wellington holding stock of 2000 rounds each.
  • There was a much larger supply of percussion ammunition for every musket in use.

This information empowered Balneavis to prioritise the redistribution of arms between military and volunteer units, thus expediting the dispatch of new arms upon their arrival from England. With the arrival of the Tawera, Sevilla, and Bosworth, Balneavis issued instructions on 6 and 8 March 1861 to redistribute arms.

  • 200 1856 Pattern (Sword) Short Rifle in use by the Auckland Rifle Volunteers be issued to the different sergeants of all volunteer corps and those remaining to Bands
  • 100 Enfield Pattern 53 Rifles in use by the Auckland Rifle Volunteers be issued to the 1st Battalion Auckland Militia
  • 300 Hay Pattern Rifles to be issued to the Auckland Rifle Volunteers
  • 200 Hay Pattern Rifles be issued to the two companies of Onehunga Volunteers
  • 100 Hay Pattern Rifles be issued to the Southern Rifle Volunteers
  • Hay Pattern Rifles be issued to the Auckland Coast Guard Volunteers (No Qty Provided)
  • As many of the Enfield Pattern 53 Rifles and Enfield Pattern 1839/Pattern 1842 Muskets in possession of the Onehunga Volunteers that Lieutenant Colonel Kenny can spare be returned to the Store in Auckland
  • All further shipments of Hay Pattern Rifles be prioritised for the issue to Southern Volunteer units
  • 80 Terry Carbines be issued to the:
    • Royal Cavalry Volunteers
    • Auckland Cavalry Guard[32]

Summary

In the 19th century, New Zealand’s military logistics history was characterised by strategic foresight, administrative hurdles, and coordination efforts amidst rising tensions and conflicts between settlers and Māori. A significant turning point came with the implementation of the Militia Act of 1858, which led to extensive requisitions for arms, ammunition, and equipment from Hebbert and Co., a military outfitter based in London. Lord Panmura’s directive in 1855, placing constraints on the provision of British military stores to colonial forces, prompted New Zealand to develop a requisition program that relied less on British sources. This initiative, initiated in 1859 and expanded in 1860, aimed to outfit New Zealand’s growing militia and volunteer forces while adhering to the latest standards of the British Army as closely as possible.

The initial requisition in June 1859 marked the beginning of efforts to enhance the colony’s defensive capabilities, with subsequent requisitions driven by evolving strategic needs and logistical deficiencies. The introduction of modern Hays rifles and Calisher and Terry carbines showcased the planning and resource allocation required within a colonial context. Despite delays in production and transportation, the procurement process persisted, facilitated by the dedication of individuals like Lieutenant Colonel Balneavis and his team, who conducted the logistics preparation and organisational tasks, including inspection, marking, alteration and distribution of arms and equipment. The distribution of arms among militia and volunteer units was prioritised based on strategic considerations and the availability of existing inventory. Additionally, financial constraints necessitated raising a War Loan to address expenses associated with the Taranaki conflict and arms procurement.

The lessons from this historical chapter resonate with military logisticians’ enduring challenges, emphasising the significance of strategic foresight, administrative efficiency, and resource management in ensuring operational readiness. As New Zealand navigated the complexities of colonial defence, its military logistics history is a testament to the enduring relevance of effective logistical planning and execution in military operations.

Notes

[1] Parliamentary Counsel Office, “Militia Act 1858,”  http://www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_act/ma185821a22v1858n8223/.

[2] Under-Secretary William Gisborne, Commission for Captain Balneavis as Deputy Adjutant General, Archives New Zealand Item Id  r24487365 (Wellington: New Zealand Archives, 1859).

[3] It remains unclear whether the 500 Flint muskets mentioned were intended for all the militias (Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, and Taranaki) or solely for the Auckland Militia.

[4] Major of Brigade, Arms and Ammunition Issued for New Plymouth Militia Are to Be Paid For, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24118692 (New Zealand Archives, 1858).

[5] Notice to Foreign Stations from War Department, 19 April 1856 ibid.

[6] It is probable that these prize pistols were for awarded for service associated with the Battle of Waireka on 28 March 1860. Hayden Hughes, “The Adams Percussion Revolver in New Zealand Wars.”

[7] Captain Balneavis, Requesting to Be Allowed Another Assistant to Keep Arms in Order, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24099683 (Wellington: New Zealand Archives, 1858).

[8] “Report of the Audit Committee of 1861,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives 1861 Session I, B-01a  (1861).

[9] “Nominal Return of All Officers in the Employ of the Governmant: Their Duties, Salaries, Location and Dates of Appointment,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1866 Session I, D-03  (1866): 12.

[10] “Reductions in Civil Service,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1888 Session I, H-30, 11 May 1888.

[11] Deputy Adjutant General to Colonial Secretary, Authority to employ Arms Cleaners 5 December 1861.  F.D Fell, “To Forward Return of Arms Issued and in Store,” Archives New Zealand Item No R24075932  (1861).

[12] Deputy Adjutant-General, “Authority to Mark Arms Received from England,” ibid.

[13] Hebbert and Co Invoice Tawera 25 August 1860. Acknowledging Instructions to Pay Hebbert and Company, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24133820 (Wellington: New Zealand Archives, 1862).

[14] Probable recipients were Beaumont Adams Patent: No 36204R “Presented by the N.Z. Government to John Phillips for gallantry at Taranaki AD 1860”  – (Puke Ariki Collection)

Beaumont Adams Patent: No 26174 “Presented by the N.Z. Government to James Ball for gallant conduct in the field at Taranaki, AD 1860” – (Puke Ariki Collection)

Beaumont Adams Patent: No 34367R “Presented by the N.Z. Government to member Frank Mace of the Taranaki Rifle Volunteers for gallantry in the field on 28 March 1860 at Waireka, New Plymouth, Taranaki.” – (Puke Ariki Collection)

Beaumont Adams Patent: No 33550R “Presented by the N.Z. Government to member Charles Messenger of the Taranaki Rifle Volunteers for gallantry in the field on 28 March 1860 at Waireka, New Plymouth, and Taranaki.” – (Puke Ariki Collection)

Beaumont Adams Patent: No 36203R “Presented by the N.Z. Government to Robert Old for gallant conduct in the field at Taranaki, AD 1860” (Auckland War Museum)

Beaumont Adams Patent: No ?????: “Presented by the N.Z. Government to member Edward Messenger of the Taranaki Rifle Volunteers for gallantry in the field on 28 March 1860 at Waireka, New Plymouth, Taranaki.” (Location unknown) Terry Shattock, 26 February 2024.   “Taranaki,” Wellington Independent, Volume XVII, Issue 1740, 15 July 1862.

[15] Hebbert and Co Invoice Sevilla 20 September 1860, Acknowledging Instructions to Pay Hebbert and Company.

[16] Gilfillan and Co, Have Ordered Carbines Etc from Sydney, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24487421 (New Zealand Archives, 1860).

[17] Deputy Adjutant General, Proceedings of a Board ‘Sevilla’, 310 Rifles, 180 Frogs, 340 Sets Accoutrements, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24488115 (Wellington: New Zealand Archives, 1861).

[18] Proceedings of a Board ‘Sevilla’, 5 Condemmed, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24488054 (Wellington: New Zealand Archives, 1861).

[19] Proceedings of a Board ‘Sevilla’, 45 Breech-Loading Carbines, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24488117 (Wellington: New Zealand Archives, 1861).

[20] Hebbert and Co Invoice Bosworth 10 October 1860. Acknowledging Instructions to Pay Hebbert and Company.

[21] Letter Gilfillan to Colonial Secretary 4 March 1861. John Alexander Gilfillan, Received Arms for the Govt by the “Bosworth”, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24131367 (New Zealand Archives, 1861).

[22] Deputy Adjutant General, Proceedings of a Board ‘Bosworth’, 300 Rifles,, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24488116 (Wellington: New Zealand Archives, 1861).

[23] Proceedings of a Board “Bosworth’, 35 Breech Loading Carbines, Ammunition, Accoutrements, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24488114 (Wellington: New Zealand Archives, 1861).

[24] Hebbert and Co Invoice African 31 December 1860. Acknowledging Instructions to Pay Hebbert and Company.

[25] Hebbert and Co Invoice Waterlily 13 January 1861. Ibid.

[26] Hebbert and Co Invoice Broadwater 19 March 1861. Ibid.

[27] Hebbert and Co Invoice Northumberland 22 April 1861. Ibid.

[28] Proceedings of a Board ‘Northumberland’ 710 Rifles, 300 Carbines  ibid.

[29] “Return of the Amount Expended out of the War Loan of 150000 from 1 October 1860 to 12 June 1861,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1861 Session I, B-05  (1861).

[30] “Return of the Amount Expended out of the War Loan of 150000 from 13th June 1861 to 31st March 1862,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1862 Session I, B-04  (1862).

[31] Schedule of Accounts and Papers Laid Upon the Table – Arms and Ammunition, a Return Showing the Distribution of Arms Belonging to the Government of New Zealand, Archives New Zealand Item Id  r17684521 (Wellington: New Zealand Archives, 1860).

[32] Deputy Adjutant General, Distribution of Rifles and Carbines, Archives New Zealand Item Id R24488026 (New Zealand Archives, 1861).

NZ Defence Stores July 1870 – June 1871

1 Comment

Consolidation after Imperial Withdrawal

The year from June 1870 to June 1871 was a formative period in the development of New Zealand’s Defence Stores system. By mid-1870, the withdrawal of Imperial forces from New Zealand was effectively complete, and with it ended the practical dominance of the British military storekeeping system that had supported Imperial operations in the colony. The responsibility for military stores, arms, ammunition, magazines, repairs, inspection, and accounting now rested with New Zealand’s own colonial defence administration.

This transition did not produce a large or elaborate organisation. The Defence Stores establishment remained small, dispersed, and heavily dependent on a limited number of experienced individuals. Yet it was now indispensable. The Armed Constabulary, Militia, and Volunteers all depended on arms, accoutrements, ammunition, magazines, repairs, and accountable issue systems. In this context, the Defence Stores were not merely warehouses. They were the technical and administrative mechanism that allowed New Zealand’s colonial forces to function.

Legislative and Financial Setting

The Militia Act 1870, passed on 12 September 1870, consolidated and amended the law relating to the Militia in New Zealand. It confirmed the Governor as Commander-in-Chief, provided for militia districts, battalions, and company divisions, and included provisions requiring arms and equipment to be returned when required. It also created penalties for losing, spoiling, selling, or pawning arms. These provisions are important because they show that the control of public arms was recognised as a matter of law, not simply routine administration.[1]

The financial setting was shaped by the Defence and other Purposes Loan Act 1870, which authorised the raising of £1,000,000, approximately NZ$180 million in 2026 values, for defence and other purposes. The Act allowed money to be borrowed in Great Britain or elsewhere and provided that the annual charge for interest and sinking fund was not to exceed six per cent.[2] A further Temporary Loan Act 1870 authorised the raising of up to £500,000, approximately NZ$90 million in 2026 values, in anticipation of monies to be raised under the larger loan legislation.[3]

Within this wider financial framework, the Store Department was provided for as a distinct defence function. The Appropriation Act 1870 funded an establishment that included an Inspector of Stores, clerks, storekeepers, sub-storekeepers, armourers, arms cleaners, magazine keepers, and operating expenses.[4]

For the modern equivalents used in this article, a working conversion of £1 in 1870 ≈ NZ$180 in 2026 values has been applied. The resulting figures are rounded and should be treated as indicative rather than exact.

Store Department Establishment, 1870–71

The following table places names against appointments where possible. Some identifications remain provisional, as the Appropriation Act lists positions and salaries rather than names. The named appointments have been drawn from the 1871 Civil Establishment nominal roll, the existing Defence Stores July 1870 to June 1871 article, the Auckland Defence Store article, and the compiled Defence Stores nominal roll.

Personnel Establishment

AppointmentProbable or confirmed incumbent, 1870–711870–71 amountApprox. 2026 NZD
Inspector of StoresLieutenant-Colonel Edward Gorton£500 0s. 0d.$90,000
Clerk, Head OfficeGeorge Simpson Lockie£150 0s. 0d.$27,000
Storekeeper, AucklandMajor William St Clair Tisdall£250 0s. 0d.$45,000
Storekeeper, WellingtonLieutenant-Colonel Henry Elmhirst Reader£100 0s. 0d.$18,000
Sub-storekeeper, WanganuiCharles Chalklin£150 0s. 0d.$27,000
Two clerks, AucklandJohn Blomfield and John Price£320 0s. 0d.$57,600
One clerk, WellingtonAlexander Crowe£150 0s. 0d.$27,000
Store Department clerk, WellingtonSam Cosgrave AndersonNot separately listed in this voteNot separately calculated
Sub-storekeeper, PateaC. A. Wray£150 0s. 0d.$27,000
Armourer, AucklandDavid Evitt£182 0s. 0d.$32,760
Armourer, WellingtonEdward Metcalf Smith and Edwin Henry Bradford£182 0s. 0d.$32,760
Arms cleaners, AucklandThomas Gibbons, John Penligen, Charles Phillips, William Cook Rockley£438 0s. 0d.$78,840
Arms cleaners, WellingtonWilliam Warren, John Shaw, James Smith, Walter Christie£438 0s. 0d.$78,840
Magazine keeper, AucklandJohn Broughton£83 10s. 0d.$15,030
Magazine keeper, WellingtonWilliam Corliss£63 17s. 6d.$11,498
Personnel establishment total £3,317 7s. 6d.$597,128

The appropriation and Public Accounts identify appointments and expenditure categories, but not always the individual recipients. Names have therefore been matched to appointments from nominal rolls, Gazette notices and related departmental research. Unless directly confirmed, the association should not be treated as proof that the individual drew the full annual amount from that vote.

Departmental Expenses

Expense1870–71 amountApprox. 2026 NZDNotes
Rent, advertising, and contingencies£150 0s. 0d.$27,000General operating costs of the Store Department.
Travelling expenses of inspecting officers£90 0s. 0d.$16,200Supported inspection of stores, arms, and local establishments.
Departmental expenses total£240 0s. 0d.$43,200 

Total Store Department Vote

Category1870–71 amountApprox. 2026 NZD
Personnel establishment£3,317 7s. 6d.$597,128
Departmental expenses£240 0s. 0d.$43,200
Total Store Department vote£3,557 7s. 6d.$640,328

This named establishment shows that the Store Department was more than a paper vote. By 1870–71, it included a recognisable network of storekeepers, clerks, armourers, arms cleaners, sub-storekeepers, and magazine keepers spread across Auckland, Wellington, Wanganui, and Patea. Separate from this personnel establishment were the department’s operating expenses, including rent, advertising, contingencies, and the travelling expenses of inspecting officers. Although modest, these expenses supported the inspection and accountability system that allowed the Defence Stores to supervise arms, ammunition, magazines, and equipment across several dispersed locations.

District Sub-storekeepers and the Dispersed Store System

In addition to the main stores at Wellington and Auckland, the Defence Stores system relied on a dispersed network of district sub-storekeepers. The existing return records district sub-storekeepers at Hamilton, Tauranga, Opotiki, Te Wairoa, Napier, Marton, Wanganui, Patea, New Plymouth, Blenheim, Nelson, Christchurch, Hokitika, Dunedin, and Invercargill. This demonstrates that the Store Department’s responsibilities extended well beyond the two principal depots. Arms, ammunition, camp equipment, tools, and accoutrements had to be held, issued, recovered, and accounted for across the colony.

The district sub-storekeeper role was often held alongside other duties. Often these appointments were combined with Militia Drill Instructor duties, Public Works sub-storekeeper duties, or Armed Constabulary sub-storekeeper responsibilities. This reflected both the small scale of the establishment and the practical need for local officials to serve multiple functions.

Public Accounts and Actual Store Department Expenditure

The Public Accounts for 1870–71 record actual Store Department expenditure of £3,458 17s. 3d., approximately NZ$622,598 in 2026 values. This was slightly below the authorised vote of £3,557 7s. 6d. The expenditure included salaries for the Inspector, storekeepers, and clerks, payments for armourers and arms cleaners, rent, advertising, contingencies, travelling expenses for inspecting officers, and the salaries of the Auckland and Wellington magazine keepers.[5]

This expenditure was modest when measured against the broader defence loans of the period, but it sustained the core mechanism of colonial military materiel management. The Store Department was responsible for ensuring that arms were maintained, ammunition was secured, stores were accounted for, and technical defects were identified and corrected.

Arms, Ammunition, Repairs, and Related Defence Expenditure

In addition to the Store Department establishment and operating expenses, the 1870–71 accounts record separate expenditure on arms, ammunition, repairs, targets, freight, insurance, and other defence-related costs. These were not listed as part of the Store Department personnel vote, but they directly affected the work of the Defence Stores, armourers, arms cleaners, and magazine keepers.

Under the Defence and other Purposes Loan Act 1870, the Government was authorised to apply loan funds to colonial defence expenditure. The First Schedule allowed up to £180,000 for colonial defence costs, charges, expenses, and liabilities for the year ending 30 June 1871, approximately NZ$32.4 million in 2026 values. A further £160,000, approximately NZ$28.8 million, was authorised for the year ending 30 June 1872.[6]

The Public Accounts for 1870–71 show that defence expenditure under Schedule I of the loan included the Armed Constabulary, miscellaneous defence expenditure, the steamer Luna, and Contingent Defence. Within those categories, several items related directly to the purchase, maintenance, carriage, and use of arms and ammunition.[7]

Arms, Ammunition, and Related Defence Costs, 1870–71

Item1870–71 amountApprox. 2026 NZDNotes
Armed Constabulary, arms, ammunition, etc.£563 15s. 3d.$101,477Arms and ammunition expenditure within Armed Constabulary contingent expenditure.
Purchase of arms£948 19s. 6d.$170,816Listed under miscellaneous defence expenditure.
Purchase of ammunition£593 6s. 6d.$106,799Listed separately from purchase of arms.
Repair of arms£21 13s. 6d.$3,902Small but significant evidence of ongoing armourer work.
Targets£61 1s. 6d.$10,994Supports rifle practice and prize firing.
Carriage and freight£227 15s. 7d.$41,000Movement of arms, ammunition, targets, or associated stores.
Insurance£150 0s. 0d.$27,000Likely associated with transport or storage risk.
Contingent Defence, ammunition and accoutrements£4,697 19s. 0d.$845,631The largest directly identifiable arms, ammunition, and equipment-related item.
Total directly related to arms, ammunition, repairs, targets, freight, insurance, and accoutrements£7,264 10s. 10d.$1,307,618 

The largest single item was £4,697 19s. for ammunition and accoutrements under Contingent Defence, approximately NZ$845,631 in 2026 values. This was significantly larger than the ordinary purchase of arms and ammunition listed under miscellaneous defence expenditure, suggesting that the most substantial equipment-related costs were associated with contingent or operational defence needs rather than routine store replacement.[8]

The accounts also recorded recoveries credited against colonial defence expenditure, including £98 10s. 5d. for arms and accoutrements and £344 1s. 11d. for ammunition. This was a combined recovery of £442 12s. 4d., approximately NZ$79,666 in 2026 values. These recoveries show that some costs were offset by repayments, returns, or credits, although the accounts do not provide enough detail to identify each transaction.[9]

This detailed expenditure adds an important dimension to the Defence Stores story. The Store Department’s own vote funded the people and machinery of storekeeping, but the broader defence accounts show the flow of materiel that those people had to receive, inspect, store, issue, repair, transport, and account for. Purchases of arms and ammunition, repairs of arms, provision of targets, carriage and freight, and the large contingent defence expenditure on ammunition and accoutrements all point to an active system of military supply rather than a dormant post-war storehouse.

Defence Stores Stock Holdings, August 1870

One of the most useful surviving snapshots of the Defence Stores system is the return of small arms, ordnance, ammunition, camp equipment, implements, and saddlery in military use as at 17 August 1870. This return gives scale to the Store Department’s task. It was not simply paying clerks and storekeepers. It was managing a large and mixed inventory of modern, obsolescent, and legacy weapons. The existing post cites this return as Edward Gorton’s report on the system of store accounts and returns of arms, ordnance, ammunition, and various stores.

Arms, Ordnance, and Ammunition in Store

CategoryItemQuantity
Small armsSnider, all patterns2,293
Small armsMedium Hay Pattern rifles7,726
Small armsEnfield Pattern 1853 rifles1,460
Small armsRifle, breech, Calisher & Terry26
Small armsShort Enfield sword rifles, Pattern 185333
Small armsSpencer rifles4
Small armsMont Storm rifles5
Small armsPercussion muskets, Pattern 1839222
Small armsCarbine, breech, Calisher & Terry284
Small armsMuzzle-loading Enfield artillery carbines67
Small armsColt revolving carbines4
Small armsPercussion carbines, various types12
Small armsRevolvers, various types215
Edged weaponsCavalry swords153
OrdnanceRBL 40-pounders2
OrdnanceRBL 6-pounders2
Ordnance24-pounder howitzers3
Ordnance4.2/5-inch mortars11
Ordnance6-pounder carronade1
Ordnance3-pounder smooth bore gun1
Small-arms ammunitionSnider rounds470,228
Small-arms ammunitionEnfield rounds1,804,983
Small-arms ammunitionBreech-loading carbine rounds251,324
Small-arms ammunitionRevolver rounds287,148
Small-arms ammunitionPercussion musket rounds160,152
Ordnance ammunitionCartridges14,145
Ordnance ammunitionShot and shell22,806

The in-store holdings alone show the complexity of the Defence Stores task. The department held modern Snider rifles alongside large numbers of older Enfield and Medium Hay Pattern rifles, specialist carbines, revolvers, swords, artillery pieces, mortars, and large quantities of ammunition. This mixture of current, ageing, and specialist equipment required careful accounting and technical oversight.

Arms and Ordnance on Issue

CategoryItemQuantity
Small armsSnider, all patterns208
Small armsMedium Hay Pattern rifles9,263
Small armsEnfield Pattern 1853 rifles6,473
Small armsRifle, breech, Calisher & Terry7
Small armsShort Enfield sword rifles, Pattern 1853224
Small armsSpencer rifles4
Small armsPercussion muskets, Pattern 18391,007
Small armsBreech-loading carbines1,271
Small armsMuzzle-loading Enfield artillery carbines218
Small armsColt revolving carbines2
Small armsPercussion carbines, various types267
Small armsRevolvers, various types934
Edged weaponsCavalry swords903
OrdnanceRBL 12-pounders6
OrdnanceRBL 6-pounders4
Ordnance6-pounder brass gun1
Ordnance24-pounder howitzers7
Ordnance32-pounder iron guns3
Ordnance24-pounder iron guns8
Ordnance12-pounder iron guns5

The quantities on issue are particularly important. They show that the principal challenge was not simply holding stores in depots, but accounting for thousands of weapons already dispersed to colonial forces. More than 9,000 Medium Hay Pattern rifles, 6,400 Enfields, 1,200 breech-loading carbines, 900 revolvers, and 900 cavalry swords were already away from the main stores and in the hands of units, posts, or local authorities.

Camp Equipment, Implements, and Saddlery

The August 1870 return also recorded camp equipment, implements, and saddlery. This broadens the understanding of the Defence Stores beyond arms and ammunition. The department also held the equipment needed for colonial forces to camp, dig, build, move, and sustain themselves in the field.

Camp Equipment, Implements, and Saddlery in Store

ItemQuantity
Circular tents326
Indian tents30
Field officer marquees13
Waterproof sheets523
Blankets647
Felling axes166
Pick axes1,036
Fern hooks115
Bill hooks91
Spades1,298
Shovels1,214
Wheelbarrows413
Mattocks111
Cross-cut saws41
Riding saddles285
Bridles262
Pack saddles101

Camp Equipment, Implements, and Saddlery on Issue

ItemQuantity
Circular tents130
Indian tents14
Waterproof sheets58
Blankets275
Felling axes235
Pick axes239
Fern hooks90
Bill hooks35
Spades400
Shovels291
Wheelbarrows85
Mattocks18
Cross-cut saws14
Riding saddles48
Bridles48
Pack saddles47

This material shows that the Defence Stores had a broader field support role. It managed not only weapons and ammunition but also tents, blankets, tools, saddlery, and pack equipment. These were the practical stores required to support movement, field works, camps, mounted activity, and local defence operations.

Gorton’s Inspection Circuit

The travelling expenses provided in the Store Department vote were not theoretical. During the year, Inspector of Stores Edward Gorton inspected Auckland in July 1870, Wanganui and Napier in August, Wanganui and Auckland in December, Christchurch in April 1871, Dunedin in May, and Auckland, Tauranga, and Thames in June. This inspection circuit demonstrates how the Store Department attempted to impose accountability across a dispersed system of depots, district stores, magazines, and issued arms.

These inspections are significant because they connect the financial vote to actual departmental activity. The Store Department was not sitting passively in Wellington and Auckland. It was inspecting, checking, and attempting to control stores across the colony.

The Albert Barracks Powder Magazine and the Move to Mount Eden

The management of powder was one of the most sensitive Defence Stores responsibilities. In February 1871, Auckland newspapers reported public concern about the powder magazine at Albert Barracks, including rumours of an attempt to ignite it and criticism that entry controls had relaxed since the departure of the British garrison. There was also concern that the quantity of powder held in the magazine exceeded what was recorded in official documents. Given the magazine’s position in a densely populated part of Auckland, this raised fears of a catastrophic explosion.

By March 1871, it was announced that the powder magazine would be transferred from Albert Barracks to Mount Eden, and by May tenders were being sought for construction of the new magazine. This episode is important because it shows that the Defence Stores’ responsibilities were not confined to accounting and issue. They included the safe custody of explosive stores, the accuracy of ammunition records, and the siting of magazines in relation to public safety.

Armourers, Arms Cleaners, and the Control of Rifles

During inspections conducted by armourers, unauthorised alterations to rifle backsights were identified, leading Lieutenant-Colonel Gorton in November 1870 to direct that altered rifles be returned to store. This incident is worth retaining and expanding, because it shows the Defence Stores acting as a technical authority, not simply as a storage office.

The issue was significant. In a militia and volunteer system, arms were widely distributed across local corps and districts. Without regular inspection, rifles could be modified, neglected, damaged, or retained without proper accountability. The presence of armourers at Auckland and Wellington, supported by arms cleaners at both centres, reflects the practical requirement to keep colonial weapons safe, serviceable, and standardised.

The wider history of New Zealand military armourers reinforces this point. Between the 1860s and 1900, New Zealand’s military armourers evolved from civilian gunsmiths and part-time artificers into a more professional group whose technical skills underpinned the readiness of the colony’s forces. The 1870–71 rifle-sight incident therefore illustrates a broader pattern: technical control of arms was becoming an essential part of colonial defence administration.

Edward Metcalf Smith and Iron-sand Experiments

Edward Metcalf Smith adds a useful technical dimension to the Defence Stores story. Smith had accumulated experience in the iron industry before undertaking a gunsmith apprenticeship at the Royal Small Arms factories in London and Enfield, followed by service at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. Arriving in New Zealand in 1861 as Garrison Armourer, he later served as armourer for the Taranaki Militia and Taranaki Rifle Volunteers.

By 1871, Smith had relocated to Wellington as Defence Armourer. Drawing on the resources of the armourers’ shop, he continued experimenting with Taranaki iron sand and refining his smelting process. His presence shows that the Defence Stores workshops were not merely places for routine cleaning and repair. They were also centres of practical technical knowledge, where experienced tradesmen applied workshop skills to broader colonial industrial problems.

Auckland Defence Store

The Auckland Defence Store remained one of the most important sites in the colonial storekeeping network. Auckland had been the main centre of Imperial and colonial military activity during much of the New Zealand Wars, and its storekeeping arrangements evolved from earlier Colonial Store and Militia Store systems. By 1870–71, the Auckland establishment included Major William St Clair Tisdall as Storekeeper, John Blomfield and John Price as clerks, George Evitt as armourer, Thomas Gibbins, John Penligen, Charles Philips, and William Cook Rockley as arms cleaners, and John Broughton as magazine keeper.

The later development of Auckland’s ordnance estate, including the movement of magazines to Mount Eden and the creation of more purpose-built facilities, shows that the improvised arrangements of the early 1870s were only the beginning of a longer process. New Zealand inherited a patchwork of armouries, magazines, depots, and barracks after Imperial withdrawal, and the gradual shift toward purpose-built logistics infrastructure began from this point.

Wellington Defence Stores, Mount Cook

At Wellington, the Defence Stores were centred on the Mount Cook Depot at Buckle Street. The named personnel for 1870–71 included Henry Elmhirst Reader as Storekeeper, Alexander Crowe as clerk, Edward Metcalf Smith and Edwin Henry Bradford as armourers, William Warren, John Shaw, James Smith, and Walter Christie as arms cleaners, and William Corliss as magazine keeper.

Mount Cook had previously been associated with Imperial military use, but by 1870–71 it was firmly part of the colonial defence system. Its use as a store, magazine, workshop, and later ordnance site connects the immediate post-Imperial Defence Stores establishment with the much longer history of Buckle Street as a centre of New Zealand military logistics.

The Joint Committee on Colonial Defence

In 1871, the Joint Committee on Colonial Defence examined both external and internal defence. For external defence, the committee considered the risk of sudden attack by a small cruiser or privateer against New Zealand’s harbours, but judged that the cost of large harbour defence works was too great for the time being. For internal defence, it identified the Armed Constabulary, Militia, and Volunteers as the available means of defence.[10]

Most importantly for this article, the committee recommended a reorganisation of the General Staff that included a Lieutenant-Colonel, Quartermaster-General and Colonial Storekeeper. This recommendation placed storekeeping and supply functions at the level of senior defence administration, alongside the Adjutant-General, Paymaster-General, and Inspecting Field Officer.

Although these were only recommendations, it shows that contemporaries understood the importance of stores, equipment, accounting, and supply to the effective management of colonial defence.

Armed Constabulary Readiness and Local Resources

The Armed Constabulary remained one of the main users of Defence Stores. In March 1871, the Defence Minister issued a circular to officers commanding Armed Constabulary posts, stressing that the efficiency of the standing force had to compensate for its numerical inferiority. Officers were instructed to know the country around their posts, including roads, tracks, streams, settlers, food, horses, and stores available in an emergency.[11]

This circular adds useful context to the Defence Stores story. Defence readiness was not simply a matter of men under arms. It required local knowledge, mobility, stores, transport, food, horses, ammunition, and serviceable weapons. The Defence Stores provided the materiel foundation for that system, while local officers were expected to understand how to use available resources in an emergency.

Volunteers and the Demand for Arms

The Inspector of Militia and Volunteers reported that Volunteer strength increased from 5,407 in June 1870 to 6,568 by 31 March 1871, with the number qualifying for capitation also increasing. He attributed this growth partly to increased capitation allowances and legislative encouragement.[12]

This increase placed additional pressure on the Defence Stores. More Volunteers meant more rifles, accoutrements, ammunition, inspections, repairs, accounting, and recoveries. The Store Department’s small establishment therefore supported a growing citizen-force system at the same time as New Zealand was reducing its reliance on Imperial troops.

Harbour Defence and the Limits of Resources

Papers relating to the defence of New Zealand harbours show that the Government was concerned about the risk of attack by small but heavily armed cruisers. In March 1871, Captain Hutton was asked to report on Auckland harbour defence, taking into account economy, efficiency, batteries, ordnance, and even torpedoes.[13]

This issue connects directly to the Defence Stores. Harbour defence, whether implemented immediately or deferred, required guns, carriages, ammunition, tools, storage, trained detachments, magazines, and repair capacity. Even where major expenditure was postponed, the debate reinforced the need for a reliable colonial store system capable of supporting whatever defence policy was adopted.

Conclusion

The period from June 1870 to June 1871 was a year of consolidation for New Zealand’s Defence Stores. With Imperial forces gone, New Zealand had to maintain its own arms, ammunition, stores, magazines, workshops, buildings, and accounting systems. The Store Department’s authorised vote of £3,557 7s. 6d., approximately NZ$640,328 in 2026 values, was modest, but it supported a small network of personnel whose work underpinned the readiness of the Armed Constabulary, Militia, and Volunteers.

When the wider defence accounts are included, the importance of the Defence Stores becomes even clearer. Its personnel establishment of just over £3,300 supported the management of arms, ammunition, repairs, freight, targets, magazines, and accoutrements valued at many thousands of pounds more, including over £7,200, approximately NZ$1.3 million in 2026 values, in directly identifiable arms, ammunition, repair, target, freight, insurance, and accoutrement-related expenditure during 1870–71.

The year also reveals the human foundations of the Defence Stores system. Edward Gorton provided inspection and oversight. Henry Elmhirst Reader and William St Clair Tisdall managed key store locations. Sam Cosgrave Anderson gained the experience that would later make him Defence Storekeeper. Edwin Henry Bradford, Edward Metcalf Smith, George Evitt, and Walter Christie represented the technical trades that kept weapons serviceable, while magazine keepers such as William Corliss and John Broughton provided custody of ammunition and powder.

This was not yet the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps, but it was one of its direct administrative and technical ancestors. The Store Department inherited much from the Imperial system, including its stores, practices, responsibilities, and problems, but it also began adapting them to colonial needs. In this sense, 1870–71 was more than a quiet administrative year after the departure of Imperial troops. It marked the point at which New Zealand’s own defence storekeeping system became essential to the colony’s military independence..

Notes

[1] General Assembly of New  Zealand, “The Militia Act 1870,”  (1870), http://www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_act/ma187033a34v1870n87223/.

[2] New Zealand, Defence and other Purposes Loan Act 1870 (33 and 34 Victoriae 1870 No 81) (New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office, 1870). https://www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_act/daopla187033a34v1870n81428/.

[3] Zealand, Defence and other Purposes Loan Act 1870 (33 and 34 Victoriae 1870 No 81).

[4] Appropriation Act 1870 (33 and 34 Victoriae 1870 No 97),  (New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office, 1870). https://www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_act/aa187033a34v1870n97312/.

[5] “Public Accounts of the General Government of New Zealand, for the Financial Year 1870-71, Commencing 1 July 1870 and ending 30 June 1874,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives 1872 Session I, B-01  (9 October 1872), https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/parliamentary/AJHR1872-I.2.1.3.1.

[6] Zealand, Defence and other Purposes Loan Act 1870 (33 and 34 Victoriae 1870 No 81).

[7] “Public Accounts of the General Government of New Zealand, for the Financial Year 1870-71, Commencing 1 July 1870 and ending 30 June 1874.”

[8] “Public Accounts of the General Government of New Zealand, for the Financial Year 1870-71, Commencing 1 July 1870 and ending 30 June 1874.”

[9] “Public Accounts of the General Government of New Zealand, for the Financial Year 1870-71, Commencing 1 July 1870 and ending 30 June 1874.”

[10] “Report by the Committees of the Legislative Council and House of Representatives, sitting in Conference, on the Defence of the Colony,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives 1871 Session I, H-09  (9 October 1871), https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/parliamentary/AJHR1871-I.2.2.5.12.

[11] “Annual Report on the State, Efficiency and Distribution of the Armed Constabulary Force,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1871 Session I, G-05  (14 June 1871), https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/parliamentary/AJHR1871-I.2.2.4.7.

[12] “Annual Report of the Inspector of Militia and Volunteers,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1871 Session I, G-05b  ( 1871), https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/parliamentary/AJHR1871-I.2.2.4.9.

[13] “Papers relative to Defence of the Harbours of New Zealand,,” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives 1871 Session I, A-04  (9 October 1871), https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/parliamentary/AJHR1871-I.2.1.2.6.

Frederick Silver – Artillery Stores Accountant 1884 – 1913

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Frederick Silver was a British Royal Marine Artilleryman who settled in New Zealand, serving in the Armed Constabulary, Permanent Militia and Defence Stores Department. Silver played an instrumental role in installing and maintaining New Zealand’s early coastal defence artillery and mobilising New Zealand contingents for the war in South Africa. The following is an account of his life and achievements.

The son of William and Jane Silver, Baker and Beer Retailer of Cheshunt, England, Frederick Silver was born on 28 August 1849, in Cheshunt, near Waltham Abby Hertfordshire. Initially a baker by trade, at the age of eighteen, Silver enlisted in the Royal Marines Light Infantry (Portsmouth Division) on 9 May 1865. Transferring into the Royal Marine Artillery on 5 April 1866, Silver served on board HMS Pandora on the West Coast of Africa from March 1868 to April 1870. Silver was promoted to Bombardier and transferred on 12 November 1869, HMS Seringapatam, awaiting passage to Headquarters. On 17 April 1872, the muster roll of HMS Audacious lists Silver as a crew member, followed by a move to Headquarters on 24 September 1872.

It is possible that Silver served on board HMS Monarch, the first sea-going turret ship and the first British warship to carry 12-inch guns, for the Spithead review in 1873. He then deployed to the Gold Coast on board HMS Simoon.

During the Ashanti campaign, Silver served ashore and was in charge of all the Naval Stores landing at Elmina (capital of the Komenda/Edina/Eguafo/Abirem District on the south coast of Ghana). He was later attached to the force under Colonel (Later Field-Marshall Sir Evelyn Wood). In his memoir “From Midshipman to Field-Marshall,” Wood wrote about Silver’s courage during the heavy fire in the clearing of Faisowah.

The reference in “From Midshipman to Field-Marshall” reads,

“When we came under heavy fire in the clearing of Faisowah, I extended Woodgate’s Kossoos to the east of the track, and Richmond on the west side with the Elmina company, in which there were 25 Haussa Ashanti slaves, whom we had taken in previous reconnaissances. The Haussas I extended in line behind, intending to pass through them if I were obliged to retire. Sergeant Silver and two white Marine Artillerymen were with me, using a rocket tube, and their cool courageous bearing was an object lesson to the blacks who could see them. “

Field-Marshall Sir Evelyn Wood “From Midshipman to Field-Marshall”, (Vol 1 pages 270-271).

After his Ashanti War Service, Silver served on HMS Monarch in the Channel Fleet from April 1874 until October 1875. He was discharged, by purchase, as a sergeant, on 9 November 1875 and set out to seek a new life in the colony of New Zealand.

After a 160-day eventful voyage during which the sailing ship Bebington Silver had collided with another ship, endured a typhus and typhoid outbreak, and ran short of provisions, Silver arrived in Auckland on 15 July 1876.

Soon after he arrived in New Zealand, Silver joined the Armed Constabulary (AC) as a constable on 29 September 1876. He remained in the AC until 1886 when the Defence Act (1886) established the Permanent Militia.

Silver married Sarah Mair on 28 August 1878 in Auckland, and they had four sons.

As a result of the 1882 Russian War scare, Silver was transferred to Wellington and employed as a Drill Instructor. The Garrison Artillery was formed from the AC in 1884, and Silver was appointed Sergeant on 1 November 1884.

New Zealand had received twenty-two breech-loading, 7-ton, and 64-pdr Rifled Muzzle Loading (RML) in 1874. However, as interest had waned by the time of their arrival in 1878, they had not been mounted and were placed into storage. In conjunction with Sergeant Major Robert George Vinning Parker, formally of the Royal; Garrison Artillery, Silver helped develop a system using tackles and timber to take these guns out of storage and mount and install them in Auckland and Wellington. This system, developed by Silver and Parker, was adapted for mounting all other similar guns throughout New Zealand. In addition to mounting the guns, Silver instructed the Gunners in the various drills at Wellington before they were detailed for the four main centres.

As New Zealand modernised its coastal defences with modern 8-inch and 6-inch breech-loading guns at Wellingtons Fort Ballance, Point Halswell and Kaiwarra Batteries, Silver supervised the mounting of these guns while also providing instruction on their use to the Permanent Staff and Volunteers. Silver oversaw mounting the first Breech-loading gun at Auckland’s Fort Cautley, Auckland. Under Silver’s supervision, mounting New Zealand’s early Coast Artillery guns was achieved at no extra cost to New Zealand.

Gun emplacement at Fort Ballance, Wellington, 1884. Williams, Edgar Richard, 1891-1983: Negatives, lantern slides, stereographs, colour transparencies, monochrome prints, photographic ephemera. Ref: 1/2-140344-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22917815

Establishing the Garrison Artillery and introducing new guns, equipment, ancillary equipment, and ammunition required new accounting and management procedures. As this was out of the scope and experience of the Defence Stores Department, in conjunction with the Defence Storekeeper Captain Sam Anderson, Parker instigated the system of Artillery Stores Accounting, which was to remain in place well into the early 20th Century. Silver was appointed Regimental Sergeant Major and Instructor in Gunnery on 13 March 1885. Following Parkers posting to Port Chalmers in 1889, Silver, in addition to his regimental duties, was placed in charge of all the Artillery stores at Auckland, Wellington and Lyttleton.

Following the death of the Defence Storekeeper, Captain Sam Anderson, in December 1899, Silver applied for the position of Ledger keeper in the Defence Stores. Silver had had a long association with Anderson. Although he felt he could assume the position of Defence Storekeeper, he recognised that Thomas Henry Sewell, the Assistant Storekeeper or James O’Sullivan, Chief Clerk of the Defence Stores, had a firmer claim on the appointment. By applying for the position of Ledger Keeper in the Defence Stores, he believed that it would place him in contention for the appointment of Assistant Defence Storekeeper. Ultimately Sewell was too ill to succeed Anderson, and O’Sullivan was appointed Defence Storekeeper.

Appointed as a temporary clerk in the Defence Stores, Silver was discharged from the Permanent Militia on 25 June 1900 and immediately assumed his new position in the Defence Stores. Although his new position entailed some new duties, Silver’s duties in managing the Artillery Ledgers were seamlessly carried over from the Permanent Militia to the Defence Stores.

During the South Africa war mobilisation, Silver oversaw clothing stores at Christchurch, Dunedin, Auckland and Trentham camps. The first contingent was required to supply their horses and saddlery equipment, with the remainder of their equipment supplied by the Government. Later contingents were supplied with their equipment from public subscriptions and Defence resources, putting the Defence Stores under considerable strain. However, due to the efforts of the Defence Stores, each contingent sailed well-equipped as the circumstances allowed. As Silver prepared and distributed the kit for the Eighth Contingent at their Auckland Camp, the observation was made that Silver was “as sleepless as a time-piece and as methodical as a cash register”.

Following the death of the Assistant Defence Storekeeper, John Henry Jerred, on 20 December 1902, as Silver’s current appointment was still temporary, Ministerial authority was granted for Silver to be appointed Assistant Defence Storekeeper on 27 December 1902.

1906 was a significant year of transformation for the Defence Stores Department. The Defence Act Amendment Act 1906 was passed on 28 October, establishing the Defence Council and providing the New Zealand Military Forces with a headquarters organised with specific staff functions, including

  • Director of Artillery Services (Ordnance): Responsible for Artillery armament, fixed coast defences, and supplies for ordnance.
  • Director of Stores: Responsible for clothing and personal equipment, accoutrements, saddlery, harnesses, small-arms and small-arms ammunition, machine guns, material, transport, vehicles, camp equipment, and all stores required for the Defence Forces.

On 26 December 1906, it was announced that O’Sullivan had been confirmed as the Director of Stores for the colony of New Zealand and appointed as Quartermaster and an Honorary Captain in the New Zealand Militia. For now, Silver’s appointment remained designated as the Assistant Defence Storekeeper. Although the Artillery ledgers should have reverted to the Director of Artillery Services (Ordnance), they remained a Defence Stores responsibility under Silver’s care.

The passing of the Defence Act 1909 heralded a transformation of the Defence Forces of New Zealand, establishing a military system that influenced the organisation, training and recruitment of the New Zealand army into the early 1970s. On 28 February 1910, The Act abolished the existing Volunteer system, creating a citizen-based Territorial Army from the units, regiments and Corps of the Volunteer Army. The Territorial Army’s personnel needs were to be maintained by a Compulsory Military Training (CMT) system, requiring the registration of all boys and men between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one. The challenge for O’Sullivan, Silver and the Defence Stores Department, an organisation already markedly transformed since 1900, was to continue to transform to meet the needs of the growing citizen army that New Zealand was creating. On 1 June 1910, Silver’s position was redesignated as the Assistant Director of Military Stores, and he was appointed a Quartermaster with the rank of Honorary Lieutenant in the New Zealand Militia.

On the appointment of Major General Alexander Godley as the Commandant of the NZMF in December 1910, Godley revitalised New Zealand’s military organisational framework, including the reorganisation of the Headquarters Staff. O’Sullivan’s position of Director of Stores was redesignated as the Director of Equipment and Stores (DEOS) and included as a branch in the Adjutant and Quartermaster General Branch staff. The Director of Ordnance and Artillery remained a separate branch, with the Godley’s’ new regulations detailing the division of responsibilities between the two directors. Unlike 1906 this reorganisation saw the Director of Ordnance and Artillery assert responsibility for managing Artillery Stores. On 14 July 1911, Lieutenant Colonel Johnston, the Director of Artillery, requested that Silver and the Artillery ledgers be transferred from the Defence Stores to the Director of Ordnance and Artillery Staff.

As the Artillery Ledgers had been Silver’s principal duty at the Defence Stores, the transfer between the branches was immediate and seamless, with the pressing question being the title of Silver’s new appointment. Silver’s initial designation was to be Armament Quartermaster. However, to bring Silver’s appointment into line with the Armament Ledgers in the British Army, he was redesignated as the Artillery Stores Accountant on 11 August 1911.

As Artillery Stores Accountant, Silver’s duties were:

  • Post up and balance the Headquarters, field and Garrison Armament ledgers.
  • Audit all Field Artillery Brigade District Ledgers.
  • Prepare annual demands for armament equipment and ammunition for the Dominion.
  • Prepare annual return of armament for the War Office.
  • Compile half-yearly returns of ammunition in stock and under order.
  • Check all local purchase requisitions affecting artillery stores.
  • Prepare circulars embodying all List of Changes in War Materiel affecting the armament of the Dominion.
  • Have knowledge of all technical artillery questions that may arise.
  • Keep corrected and up-to-date all textbooks and have all amendments duly made.
  • Keep records of all periodic tests of explosives and enter “sentence” in accordance with regulations.
  • Check stores in Districts and inspect Armament and equipment magazines, &c. , under the instructions of the Director of Ordnance.

By June 1913, Silver was 64 and had served for 47 and a half years, ten years of Royal Marine service and 37 years in the New Zealand Forces. Having suffered a physical breakdown, he recognised that he could not devote the required attention to his duties and requested permission to retire. Silver’s request to retire was granted, and on 17 June 1913, he retired with the Honorary rank of Captain. Silver’s severance date was 31 October 1913, and he was granted an annual pension of £165 (2022 NZ$31,360.16)  per year commencing on 1 November 1913.

Silver died at his home at Karaka Bay, Seatoun, Wellington, on 5 May 1925 and is interned at Karori Cemetery Wellington.

Frederick Silver, a British Royal Marine Artilleryman, settled in New Zealand and served in the Armed Constabulary and later in the Permanent Militia. He was appointed Regimental Sergeant Major and Instructor in Gunnery on 13 March 1885 and played a crucial role in installing and maintaining New Zealand’s early coastal defence artillery. He supervised mounting modern 8-inch and 6-inch breech-loading guns at various locations, including Wellington’s Fort Ballance, Point Halswell, and Kaiwarra Batteries. As a foundation member of New Zealand’s Garrison Artillery, he helped to introduce new accounting and management procedures. He managed the Artillery ledger account from 1889 until his retirement in 1913. In 1900, Frederick Silver transferred to the Defence Stores Department and significantly contributed to mobilising all New Zealand contingents to the war in South Africa. He returned to the Artillery in 1911 and retired in 1913 after 47 and a half years of service, including ten years of Royal Marine service and 37 years in the New Zealand forces. Frederick Silver’s contributions to New Zealand’s early coastal defence artillery and mobilisation efforts during the South African War were invaluable. His service is a testament to his dedication and expertise.

Kelsey swivel-stock rifle

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Due to its isolated location at the culmination of international trade routes, New Zealand has become a well-known centre of resourcefulness and innovation, inventing leading-edge and world-changing products. Some notable examples are Disposable syringes and tranquilliser guns, the referee whistle, the eggbeater, the electric fence, jet boats, flexible plastic ear tags for livestock, bungy jumping, flat whites and pavlova. While these products have all had a peaceful intent and provided a valuable contribution to the world, New Zealand’s war experience in the twentieth century has also contributed to military innovation. The Kelsey swivel-stock rifle is discussed here,  a New Zealand invention from the 1950s that allowed a Sten Sub Machin Gun to be fired from behind cover and around corners.

Shooting around a corner from cover with he experimental Mk5 Sten “Swivel Butt Carbiner”. Courtesy MoD Pattern Room Library

During the latter stages of the Second World War, based on the lessons learned on the Eastern Front, the German military identified a requirement for aiming and firing weapons around corners and from within Armoured Fighting Vehicles (AFVs). The Germans developed the Krummlauf barrel attachment for the Sturmgewehr 44 (StG 44) and Maschinengewehr 42 (MG 42) to meet this requirement.

The Krummlauf was produced in two variants:

  • The “I” variant for infantry use,
  • The “P” variant for use in AFVs to provide cover over blind spots to defend against assaulting infantry

The “I” and “P” barrels for the StG 44 and  MG 42 were produced with bends of 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°. However, only the “I” 30° Barrell for the StG 44  was produced in quantity.

Krummlauf “I” version. (2022, October 28). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krummlauf
Krummlauf “P” variant. (2022, October 28). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krummlauf

With a very short lifespan—approximately 300 rounds for the 30° variant and 160 rounds for the 45° variant—the Krummlauf barrel was under great stress. Additionally, due to the barrel bend, bullets shattered as they exited the barrel, producing an unintended shotgun effect. Developed too late in the war for testing and refinement by the Germans, postwar testing by the United States Army resulted in some modifications; however, the Krummlauf remained unreliable despite these modifications. The Soviets also experimented with a curved barrel, producing an Experimental PPSh with a curved barrel. However, with the curved barrel seen as a novelty, interest in the concept was soon lost.

Despite the concept of a bent barrel to allow the firing around corners, proving impracticable, Lieutenant Colonel John Owen Kelsey had seen the need for such a capability during New Zealand’s streetfighting in Italy and set about finding a solution.

Colonel Kelsey was born in New Plymouth in November 1904. Before World War II, he served as an Engineering Officer with the Royal Navy for two years. This engineering background led to his first New Zealand Army Ordnance posting in 1939 as a 2nd Lieutenant with the 13th LAD New Zealand Ordnance Corps (NZOC). Shortly after he arrived in Egypt in 1940, he was promoted to Lieutenant and posted as the Assistant Senior Ordnance Mechanical Engineer (SOME). He became the SOME and was promoted to Temporary Captain a few months later. In November of the same year, he became the Deputy Assistant Director of Ordnance Services (Equipment) (DADOS E) HQ 2NZ Division. He was also promoted to Temporary Major while holding this position and, in April and May 1941, took part in the campaigns in Greece and Crete. On return from Crete, he was transferred to the British Royal Army Ordnance Corps (RAOC) Deputy Director Ordnance Services(DDOS) office for a few months and then returned to 2NZEF as the Chief Ordnance Mechanical Engineer (COME) in August 1941. His duties were extended a year later when he became the Assistant Director of Ordnance Services (ADOS) and COME 2NZEF.

After forming a separate Corps of New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (NZEME) in December 1942, Colonel Kelsey relinquished the appointment of COME and became the ADOS 2NZEF/ADOS 2NZ Division and was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel.

Lieutenant Colonel J O Kelsey, MBE August 1943- Ref: DA-04363-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22681005

A temporary promotion to Colonel followed from February to March 1944, when Colonel Kelsey was appointed as the DDOS of a Corps for operations in Italy.

He returned home on well-earned leave in April 1944 after four and a half years away but returned to the Middle East in September 1944. He resumed the ADOS 2NZEF and 2NZ Division appointments and maintained these responsibilities until the war ended, completing six years with the division and participating in every campaign. For distinguished service, Colonel Kelsey was Mentioned in Despatches.

On his discharge, Colonel Kelsey went into business as an accountant at Whakatane but was not very successful. He relocated to Auckland, where he obtained a post in the Public Relations Office but was subsequently asked to leave. Setting up a public relations office in Devonport, where he slept on a couch in the office because he could not afford to board, Colonel Kelsey set to work developing his Sten Gun adapted to fire around corners.

In June 1953, The Press announced that a Sten gun adapted to shoot round corners had been developed by Colonel Kelsey, known as the Kelsey swivel-stock rifle and that the army had tested it at Waiouru Military Camp. Following the success of these tests, the device was sent to the War Office in London for further examination.

Colonel Kelsey had adapted the Sten gun to have a swivel butt and a unique sight. Unlike the wartime Krummlauf, it was not a weapon with a bent barrel but a standard Sten Gun. The weapon could be used in the usual way, with shooting a round left or right corners enabled by simply resetting the butt to 90°to the parrel and sighted using a unique sight. The sight was based on the principle of the periscope, using prisms with exact details placed on the secret list.

With no reply from the War Office by the end of 1953 and confident with his design and that it could be adapted for other firearms, Colonel Kelsey took out world patent rights and intended to fly to England or America to try to sell the invention to armaments firms. However, despite being optimistic about his future, Colonel Kelsey struggled with the toll of adjusting to peacetime life, business failures, financial difficulties, a failed marriage and some unhappy love affairs and was discovered by the police on the floor of his office in Clarence Street, Devonport, at 5.30 pm. on 8 February 1954. Under his body was a .22 calibre rifle, which he appeared to have been holding.

A letter on the table addressed to whom it may concern said he was experimenting “to try to find the reason for dissipation of recoil in a rifle or submachine gun. This is immensely important to me now that the Kelsey swivel-stock rifle has proved successful.” He added “that there was considerable risk in the experiments,” with a footnote adding that the tests were to be made at training grounds near Whenuapai.

After reading some of Colonel Kelsey’s letters in chambers, the Coroner found that there was ample evidence that Colonel Kelsey had many personal difficulties. If he had intended to test the rifle at the time of his death, he would not have needed to write the letters, in one of which Kelsey stated he was “going to die,” The Coroner said he was forced to conclude that the cause of death was suicide by a self-inflicted bullet wound in the head.

With Colonel Kelsey’s passing, the development of the Kelsey swivel-stock rifle progressed no further.

In Leroy Thompson’s 2012 history of the Sten Gun, a variant of the Sten Gun matching Colonel Kelsey’s device is precisely described. This indicates that the weapon was tested and, although never progressing past the prototype stage, a record of its existence, along with some photos, was kept.

L. Thompson, M. Stacey, and A. Gilliland, The Sten Gun (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012).
Vintage Airsoft Update April 2019
Airsoft Sten MkIII: https://vintageairsoft.wordpress.com/2019/07/21/sten-mk5-folding-stock-experimental-model/

No other New Zealand Ordnance Officer has held such a variety of appointments on active service. Colonel Kelsey was an OME, SOME, DADOS(Equipment), COME, ADOS, DDOS, and acting CREME. Despite his wartime service and the award of the MBE and Mention in Dispatches, there was no place for Colonel Kelsey in the regular post-war army. Despite his optimistic belief in the success of the Kelsey swivel-stock rifle, Colonel Kelsey struggled to adjust to the post-war world. Without understanding the effects of wartime stress that exist today now, he fell through the gaps and took his own life. Additionally, given the stigma surrounding suicide that has existed for many years, his wartime service and potential achievement as an inventor have never fully been recognised.

Plan of the Defence Stores Mount Eden

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This undated plan of the Mount Eden Goal Reserve provides a view of the layout of the long-forgotten Auckland Defence Stores Mount Eden location. Located between the Goal and Auckland Grammar School, this plane was drawn up sometime between 1907 and 1917

The Defence Stores footprint at Mount Eden started in 1871 when two magazines were constructed to house Defence ammunition, then stored at Albert Barracks in the centre of Auckland.

In 1903 the Defence Stores Office in O’Rourke Street (now Auckland University) was relocated to Mount Eden. Initially, the existing magazines at Mount Eden were thought to be sufficient. However, it was soon found that additional buildings were required, and a Stores building and Armourer’s shop were constructed during 1903/04. Eventually, a house was also built for Captain W.T Beck, the District Storekeeper.

In 1917 the Defence Stores were reorganised into the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps (NZAOC), with the Mount Eden Defence Stores becoming the Northern Districts Ordnance Depot.

By 1920, with little space available for expansion to allow the storage of the large number of mobilisation stores required by the Norther District, construction of an alternative site for the Mount Eden Ordnance Depot began at Hopuhopu in the Waikato.

While the Hopuhopu site was still under construction, Stores from the Mount Eden site began to be transferred to Hopuhopu in 1927. The new depot officially opened in 1929, with the Mount Eden Depot closing.

The Store constructed in 1903 was dismantled and re-erected at the Narrow neck Camp on Auckland’s North Shore. The fate of the original magazines is unknown, but they were likely taken over for a time by the nearby Colonial Ammunition Company (CAC).

The closure of the Mount Eden Depot did not totally sever to the connection between Mount Eden and the Ordnance Corps, with Ordnance Ammunition staff remaining attached to the CAC until 1967, testing the supply of Small Arms Ammunition provided by that factory.