Operating in an era far removed from today’s advanced technological landscape, the Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps (RNZAOC) relied heavily on manual processes for Stores and Inventory accounting. These archaic methods, virtually unchanged since the 1860s, demanded the laborious creation of vouchers and the meticulous recording of entries in ledger books and cards. This painstaking work necessitated an unparalleled degree of attention to detail. Yet, as time advanced and the complexities of modern logistics grew, the RNZAOC was scrutinised for its somewhat lackadaisical approach to accounting procedures. Critics pointed to inefficiencies and the need for a more streamlined and technologically driven approach to supply accounting. In response to these challenges, the RNZAOC embarked on a journey of modernisation and computerising its supply accounting system as part of a broader Defence programme. This transformation would not only address its shortcomings but also mark a significant milestone in the history of New Zealand’s military logistics. This article delves into the historical evolution of the RNZAOC’s store’s accounting practices, tracing its humble beginnings in manual processes to technological advancement and potential efficiency.

Owing to the historical connections between the RNZAOC and the British Army, the RNZAOC initially employed the Vocabulary of Army Ordnance Stores (VAOS) system to categorise item part numbers. Nevertheless, as the relationship with the United States deepened, and more US equipment entered into service, a pivotal decision was made in 1968 to embrace the NATO Codification System. This transition replaced VAOS numbers with universally recognised NATO Stock Numbers (NSNs). NSNs are commonly associated with the United States Military as National Stock Numbers, which evolved from the Federal Stock Numbers developed during World War II. While the United States Government developed the codification system, it has long been developed and augmented into a Global System by NATO.

Each Item of Supply is identified in the National Codification System by a unique 13-digit NSN. The NSN consists of three identifying parts:

• A four-digit NATO Supply Classification (NSC), also known as “Group Class,” this places the item into a group classification, for example, generators, aircraft engines, etc.
• A Two-digit Nation Code (NC) identifying the country assigned the NATO Stock Number. Examples of NCs are:
  • 00 and 01 – United States.
  • 66 – Australia.
  • 99 – United Kingdom.
  • 98 – New Zealand.
• A seven-digit Item Identification Number (IIN) which, together with the NZ, is unique to that item.

With the support of the United Kingdom, New Zealand gained admission to the NATO Codification community in 1969. Although the first official “98” NATO Stock Number (NSN) was assigned in December 1972,  NSNs with the “NZ” prefix had been in active use as far back as 1964. With many items still in the supply system with VAOS codes, it took time to harmonise and align the two codification systems. However, by the close of the 1970s, NATO Stock Numbers had been fully integrated into the New Zealand Army supply infrastructure.

Simultaneously, as New Zealand transitioned into the NATO Codification community, and considering that a significant portion of RNZAOC activities centred around procurement, provisioning, and store’s accounting, steps were taken in the mid-1960s to modernise the processes related to store’s accounting.

The store’s accounting practices within the RNZAOC had evolved from the initial systems established by the New Zealand Defence Stores Department in the 1860s and incorporated lessons learned since then. The cornerstone of these records was the ledger card. In 1980, many of the ledger cards utilised by the RNZAOC had their roots in the Royal Army Ordnance Corps (RAOC) Visidex system. The Visidex system, introduced by the RAOC in the late 1930s, was designed as a straightforward ledger card system to replace complex mechanical ledger posting systems that had proven unsatisfactory.[1]  Initially implemented for wartime use within Ordnance Field Parks (OFPs), the Visidex system proved ideal due to its simplicity, requiring minimal staff training. Carbon-backed posting slips were used, enabling easy checks to be conducted. Each OFP section maintained a control office where all indents from units were received. The stock record was meticulously verified, the stock’s location within the OFP (where each truck served as a stock location) was identified, and the stock record was promptly updated. If the stock was available, it was immediately issued. When the stock was unavailable, it was recorded as “Dues Out,” and an indent was placed with the supporting Depot for replenishment, marked as “Dues In.” [2]  Each truck within an OFP also maintained its stock records, reconciled with each issue, receipt, and stocktake. The robustness and simplicity of the Visidex system made it the primary field stores accounting system within the New Zealand Army, a role it continued to fulfil well into the 1990s. In the context of the 1980s, the RNZAOC stores accounting system consisted of eight different ledger card systems:

• MD 310 Ledger card. Used by 1 Base Supply Battalion, 1, 2, 3, and 4 Supply Companies, and the New Zealand Advanced Ordnance Depot Provision, Control and Accounts (PC&A) Sections to manage Defence Inventory, less, Ammunition, Rations and Fuel and Articles in Use (AiU).
• MD 324 Loan Record Card. Used by Quartermaster Stores to manage AIU items on long term loan (7 Days or more) to individuals.
• MD 329 Record of Stores Supplied on Temporary Loan. Used by Quartermaster Stores to manage AIU items on short term (7 Days or less) loan to individuals.
• AFNZ 150 Stock Record Card. Used by RNZAOC Workshops Stores section to manage repair parts, assemblies and workshop material to suit the particular requirements of their parent workshops.
• AFNZ 169P Ammunition Account Card and AFNZ 171P Ammunition Lot/Data Card. Used by the Ammunition Provision Control and Accounts (APCA) section to manage serviceable and unserviceable ammunition.
• AFNZ 28 Supplies and FOL Ledger. Used by RNZAOC Supply Platoons to manage Foodstuffs, Fuel, oil and lubricants.
• AFNZ 162 Stock and Provision Record Card. Based on the Visidex card, the AFNZ162 was used by RNZAOC Field units to manage stock in operational environments.
• AFNZ 161 Store Ledger Card. Used by RNZAOC Quartermaster Stores to manage AIU items in-store or on distribution under an MD502 Distribution Record.

The journey to replace the use of stubby pencils and erasers began in the early 1970s with the introduction of an International Computers Limited (ICL) 1903 computer system to service New Zealand’s military computer needs.

With a mainframe in the Wellington suburb of Porirua and running a system known as S2 on NCR-33 and later NCR-299 accounting machines, Defence stockholding units were enabled to record various stores’ accounting transactions. A typical transaction was initiated by an MD 315 Demand, Issue and Receipt voucher, which led to the MD 310 Ledger Cards being retrieved from their bins in ledger offices and sent to the machine room. Based on the transaction required, the MD 310 was updated using the NCR-33 and, later, NCR-299 machines with the transaction recorded on a paper tape. Once the updates were completed, the MD310s were returned to the ledger office. During this procedure, the MD310 could be away from the ledger bin for a significant period. Thus, other transactions relevant to that particular card were held up. Also, as there was no electronic link between the data capture machine and the mainframe, there was a time lag between producing the paper tape and having the information added to the mainframe’s inventory database, resulting in the information on the central inventory file being out of date at all times.

By 1981, the NCR 33s had surpassed seventeen years of service, while the 299s had been used for over nine years. Both were considered obsolete and lacked adequate spare support. Despite the prevailing industry norm of a five-year lifespan for computer hardware upgrades in commercial enterprises, the New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) lagged two generations behind in computer technology. Although the NZDF possessed a modern mainframe, it failed to harness the full potential of the available computing power and technological advancements.

This situation was rectified in 1981 when the NZDF replaced the ICL System with a Sperry UNIVAC 1100 60 E Mainframe.[3]  Concurrent with installing the Sperry system, a comprehensive data communications network was established, connecting most major Defence locations to the computer at Porirua. This network featured 550 non-programmable (dumb) workstations across the defence infrastructure, each consisting of a keyboard and terminal.

The Sperry mainframe computer became fully operational by April 1982. However, as the S2 system was developed on an ICL 1903 computer, the conversion to the Sperry system proved difficult. The system suffered severe conversion problems with the programme, paving the way for implementing the Defence Supply System Retail (DSSR) project. The full implementation of DSSR was initially forecast for 1986/87. DSSR was conceived as a project to extend the mainframe’s technology to the depot and unit level, automating the functions conducted by the ICL system with minimal enhancements. The anticipated benefits of DSSR included:

• A more responsive reporting facility.
• An electronic data record in place of ledger cards.
• Automatic production of vouchers.
• Automatic updating of stock files.
• An up-to-date central overview of the stock situation.
• Automated production of statistics at both HQ and unit levels.
• An instantaneous enquiry system at unit level.
• Less dependence by units on higher Headquarters for stock information.

By 1983, RNZAF Base Auckland had implemented the DSSR system, with 1 Supply Company at Ngāruawāhia migrating their MD310s into the DSSR system. This concerted effort positioned 1 Sup Coy to input the ledger balances into the DSSR system once the necessary hardware, including terminals, keyboards, and printers, had been installed and the personnel of 1 Sup Coy had completed their training. These milestones were successfully achieved by late March 1984. As 1 Sup Coy went live, other RNZAOC units were cleansing their records in anticipation of integration into the DSSR system. The transition from the NCR Machines to DSSR was not seamless as the NCR machines were worn out and difficult to support by the vendor. Units such as NZAOD and 4 Sup Coy had by 1984 reverted to a manual accounting system. Although labour-intensive, manual accounting using the MD310 was found to be accurate, with stock figures held in PC&A Sections not too far out.[4]

DSSR represented just one of the computer applications employed by the RNZAOC. By 1988, the SPERRY Mainframe at Porirua supported additional applications alongside DSSR. Running on a third-generation programming language known as COBOL, the most well-known COBOL programs included:

• POLI (Personnel On-line Inquiry).
• AIRMAIL (Personnel On-line PON Input).
• DSSR (Defence Supply Systems – Detail).
• LOGIC (Logistics Inventory Control).
• Finance Interrogation (RI) System.
• Finance Expenditure (RS) System.
• Finance Commitments (RC) System.

Another mainframe application utilised by the RNZAOC was the Maintaining, Preparing, Producing Executive Report (MAPPER) application. While it could be used for programming, it was resource-intensive, making it less favoured by computer production management staff. The RNZAOC, along with the RNZEME, were significant users of MAPPER, employing it for:

• 1 BSB Stock Location System.
• Army Defect Reporting System (ADRS).
• Army Equipment Management System (AEMS).

The New Zealand Army Scales and Documentation Centre (NZASDC) Scales and Entitlements System Was introduced in 1986, automating the production of equipment scaling documents. The NZASDC system was based on a PRIME computer and incorporated data and graphics. One of the selling points for introducing this system was that it allowed the staff of NZASDC to overcome an estimated backlog of 150 man-years. The budget for this system in 1985 was $0.579m (2023 $1,835,352).

By 1988, access to the Defence Integrated Database System (DIDS)was introduced, allowing for enquiries against all overseas provided identification and technical information. This gave item managers access to other nation’s sources of supply.

Since the mainframe provided access to only limited applications and little scope for general computer familiarisation, the first Sanyo microcomputers were introduced into Defence in 1981. These offered access to programs for word processing, spreadsheets, and database access to Defence units. 1988 Defence expanded its microcomputer capability with a tender for a new range of microcomputers based on the IBM/MS-DOS standard. The selected machine was the 16-bit Compaq Deskpro 286. By the end of 1988, the number of Compaqs owned by Defence was over 700, with 140 installed within Army units. Standard software packages selected for these microcomputers include the following:

• WordStar 2000 Plus (Word-processor)
• dBase III Plus (Database)
• Lotus 1-2-3 (Spreadsheet)
• SuperCalc4 (Spreadsheet)
• FrameWork 2 (Integrated package)
• SideKick (Desktop assistant)

The Defence Supply System Development (DSSD) project was initiated in 1986 as the second phase to replace the NCR accounting machines and ledger cards in stockholding units, with the first phase, DSSR, implemented during 1983/5. Both DSSR and DSSD were considered interim solutions due to the urgency dictated by the inability to support the NCR accounting machines beyond 1988.

The Defence Supply Redevelopment Project (DSRP) was launched in 1986 to find a lasting solution. The goal was to replace the temporary DSSR and DSSD systems while tackling persistent issues like repairable item management and performance measurement.

Resource limitations made it impractical to develop both projects (DSSD & DSRP) in parallel and wasteful to develop both as interim solutions. Analysis of the fundamental problems with the supply system identified during the first phase of DSSR pointed to DSSD as a reasonable, simple and achievable data integrity and management solution.

DSSD was confirmed in 1987 as the baseline supply system for later enhancement by DSRP. This has involved a change in scope to allow repair processing and retail functions with DSSD replacing DSSR with more comprehensive processing. On completion of DSSD, it was intended to have a stable on-line supply system in place, containing each of the essential features required of a supply accounting and replenishment system in basic form, allowing the New Zealand military to meet its operating requirements. The planned implementation phases for DSSD were:

• Construct item identification records and complete depot purification by March 1988.
  • 1 Base Supply Battalion (1BSB) trial and conversion by March 1989.
  • Enhance 1 BSB office facilities and convert Air and Navy depots by January 1990.
  • Retail prototypes by September 1990.
  • Enhanced retail facilities and complete conversion by January 1991.
  • Develop future DSRP modules such as performance measurement starting in 1990.

With DSSR rolled out to most RNZAOC Units by 1987. However, the DSSD development team encountered difficulties with the LINC development environment, delaying the pilot system rollout at 1BSB until late 1989.

To enhance field support capabilities, the RNZAOC initiated computer experimentation in 1988. A significant milestone occurred during the 1988 Force Maintenance Group (FMG) Annual Camp when a mainframe terminal was introduced to the 21 Supply Company, granting access to the DSSR. Another notable advancement at the FMG Annual Camp involved the trial of a computer-based Frequency of Issue (FOI) calculation system designed and coded using dBase III. This system drastically improved efficiency, enabling the Ration Platoon staff to complete forty-eight man-hours of work in just four hours. Following this success, the FOI program underwent a thorough evaluation by a Quality Review Team established by the Directorate of Ordnance Services (DOS). It was subsequently extensively redeveloped and renamed COMRAT.

During the 1989 Exercise Golden Fleece, mainframe terminals were strategically placed in the exercise area to support 21 Supply Company, the Ordnance Support Group (OSG), and Workshop Stores Sections. Additional general-purpose terminals were deployed at the New Zealand Force and FMG Headquarters. Strong data communication links were established to the Defence mainframe through Telecon data circuits and RNZSigs radio relay facilities.

Furthermore, COMRAT was tested and evaluated by RNZAOC units deployed on Exercise Golden Fleece in New Zealand and on Exercise Taiaha Tombak X in Malaysia, utilising hardware in the form of a ‘ruggedised’ GRiDCASE laptop or Hewlett-Packard Portable Vectra CS laptop. These innovative approaches aimed to validate the procedures and facilities required to support logistics elements deployed alongside operational forces. However, the outcomes of these experiments were diverse, showcasing both successes and challenges. While progress was evident, it became clear that the ultimate goal of achieving a fully deployable logistics solution remained a work in progress.

As the 1980s drew to a close, the RNZAOC’s shift from manual to technology-driven supply accounting was underway. The progress achieved since the late 1960s included significant milestones such as adopting NSNs, implementing networked and standalone computer systems, and initiating modernisation projects like DSSR and DSSD. These advancements represented a profound evolution in New Zealand’s military logistics.

This two-decade-long effort was a foundation for the rapid development in the 1990s. Despite encountering various challenges, these advancements paved the path toward a more efficient and streamlined approach to military supply management. Importantly, they positioned the RNZAOC to lead in this transformative journey.

The RNZAOC’s transition signifies a substantial paradigm shift in military logistics, showcasing their wholehearted embrace of modern technology and methodologies to enhance the effectiveness and precision of supply management. While this article provides a simplified overview, it is hoped to be a catalyst, inspiring further in-depth research into this crucial aspect of New Zealand’s military logistic history.

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[1] Brigadier A.H Fernyhough C.B.E. M.C, History of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps 1920-1945 (London: Royal Army Ordnance Corps, 1965), 40.

[2] P.H. Williams, War on Wheels: The Mechanisation of the British Army in the Second World War (History Press Limited, 2016), 73.

[3] New Zealand. Parliament, Parliamentary Debates: House of Representatives (1983), 1236-7.

[4] Major J.S Bolton, A History of the Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps (Trentham: RNZAOC, 1992), 213.