Debunking the Myth of New Zealand’s Military Unpreparedness During the Interwar Period

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During the interwar period, a popular myth emerged that New Zealand allowed its military to downsize so that by 1939, the country was woefully unprepared for war, with many contemporary studies highlighting that New Zealanders went to war no better equipped than their fathers in the First World War. While there is some truth to this narrative, a closer examination of the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps (NZAOC) and the broader activities of the New Zealand Army from 1931 to 1939 tells a more nuanced story. Despite material and personnel deficiencies, a keen awareness of global events prompted continuous military doctrines and preparations updates. These efforts ensured that, in the event of war, New Zealand could quickly mobilise not only the basic framework of an expeditionary force but also the necessary resources to support it in the long term.

Evidence of Preparedness

In 1931, the NZAOC had shrunk from a strength of 120 in 1930 to 21 officers and soldiers supported by a cadre of civilian staff in the Ordnance Depots and Workshops at Threntham, Hopohopu and Burnham. From 1934, Major Thomas Joseph King, the Director of Ordnance Services (DOS), ensured that critical positions were filled by competent and experienced personnel. Some were drawn from the existing NZAOC civil staff ranks (many were former NZAOC soldiers transferred to the civil staff in 1931), and others were recruited explicitly into the NZAOC, such as Allan Huia Andrews.

Jonathan Fennell, in his book Fighting the People’s War: The British and Commonwealth Armies and the Second World War, identifies that throughout the interwar years, the British Military establishment analysed the lessons of the previous war and interpreted contemporary developments. Updating doctrine throughout the 1930s, the British Military progressively transformed into a mechanised force armed with some of the era’s most advanced weapons and equipment. The Field Service Regulations (FSR), the tactical bible of British Commonwealth armies, was updated with at least four editions, proving that the British Army was willing to learn from past mistakes. Compared to the two German and French equivalent doctrine editions produced during the same period. Following the British lead, New Zealand kept as much abreast of these developments as practically possible.

Limited by the financial constraints of the time, training exercises and war games were conducted to keep military personnel sharp and ready from 1936. These exercises often simulated various scenarios, including mobilisation and deployment, ensuring that the army could respond effectively in times of crisis. Additionally, experiments with motor vehicles and motorcycles and testing modifications by the NZAOC workshops of WW1 artillery pieces fitted with pneumatic wheels and new carriages were undertaken.

Ford Marmon Herrington Artillery Tractor, Limber and 4.5-inch Howitzer
60 Pounder Guns showing both the original carriage and the New Zealand-built carriage

Detailed mobilisation plans were undertaken behind the scenes, with Lieutenant A.H. Andrews playing a pivotal role in updating and developing mobilisation scales. These plans included stockpiling essential supplies at Trentham, Burnham, and Hopuhopu and identifying critical infrastructure vital in supporting an expeditionary force, which saw new construction of logistic infrastructure at all camps. In terms of resources, the following equipment was on order from the United Kingdom in 1938:

  • Bren Guns complete with equipment and components – 248 (in addition to 100 ordered in 1936)
  • QF 2Pdr with equipment and accessories – 16
  • Wireless sets No. 9 and No. 11

Given that all the equipment was only accepted into British service from 1935, it is clear that by ordering these items, New Zealand was keen on modernising with the latest equipment and was equipped on a par with contemporary forces in the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia.

Soldier with Bren gun at Waiouru Army Training Camp, taken circa 1936-1938 by Errol Cliff Morton. . Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22316064

In addition, as the New Zealand Permanent Air Force (NZPAF) was preparing to transition independently from the army and become the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) in 1937, Major King of the NZ Army developed a new system for managing stores specifically for the RNZAF in 1936.

The New Zealand military leadership kept pace with global events and potential threats, which influenced the earlier planning and helped prevent the country from being caught entirely off guard when war eventually broke out. This global awareness likely also influenced the Four Colonels’ Revolt. Several senior officers, alarmed by the decline of the Territorial Force, protested directly to the press against the reforms of New Zealand Chief of Staff Major General Sir John Evelyn Duigan. As a result, they were placed on the retired list as punishment.

The Importance of a Balanced Approach

The interwar period underscored the importance of maintaining a long-term vision for military preparedness. While immediate readiness may have been compromised by budget cuts, strategic planning and resource mobilisation efforts ensured New Zealand could enhance its military capabilities.

Adapting and updating doctrines and strategies in response to global events proved crucial. This flexibility enabled New Zealand to sustain a level of preparedness that, though not immediately apparent, proved effective over time.

Effective collaboration and coordination among military branches and civilian authorities were essential for maintaining readiness. This ensured comprehensive coverage of all military operations, from logistics to combat readiness.

Lessons for the Modern Logistician

One of the key takeaways for modern logisticians is the importance of strategic foresight. The ability to anticipate future needs and plan accordingly can significantly impact readiness and response times in crises.

Effective resource management is crucial. During the interwar period, New Zealand stockpiled its limited available supplies and ordered advanced equipment for the next war to ensure readiness. Modern logisticians must ensure that resources are managed efficiently and critical supplies are readily available.

The experiments with motor vehicles and artillery modifications highlight the need for adaptability and innovation. Modern logisticians should continually seek ways to improve processes and equipment to maintain a competitive edge.

The importance of collaboration between military branches and civilian authorities cannot be overstated. Effective communication and coordination ensure that all aspects of logistics, from supply chains to support services, are streamlined and efficient.

Training exercises and war games prepared the New Zealand military despite financial constraints. Modern logisticians should emphasise continuous training and development to ensure personnel are always ready to respond effectively.

Interconnected Efforts of the NZAOC, Quartermaster General, and NZASC

The interwar efforts significantly contributed to the rapid expansion of the New Zealand logistics systems from 1939. It’s important to note that the work of the NZAOC wasn’t carried out in isolation but was part of a coordinated effort involving the Quartermaster General and the New Zealand Army Service Corps (NZASC). The Quartermaster General’s office was pivotal in overseeing the overall logistical strategy and ensuring all branches worked together. The NZASC, responsible for supply and transport, worked closely with the NZAOC to ensure that rations, fuels, forage and transport services were efficiently managed and distributed. This integrated approach ensured that logistical operations were cohesive and effective, maximising the New Zealand Army’s readiness.

Conclusion

While it is acknowledged that New Zealand’s military faced significant downsizing during the interwar period, the assertion of complete unpreparedness by 1939 oversimplifies the historical context. The strategic appointments within the NZAOC, under Major King’s direction, and continuous updates to military doctrine exemplify proactive measures taken to maintain readiness amidst global uncertainties. Despite material and personnel shortages, training exercises from 1936 onwards and innovative adaptations in weaponry underscored New Zealand’s commitment to enhancing military capabilities.

This nuanced and proactive approach ensured New Zealand could swiftly mobilise and sustain an expeditionary force when needed, challenging the myth of its military unpreparedness during the interwar years. However, further study is necessary to fully grasp the intricacies of New Zealand’s military preparedness during this period. Detailed archival research, comparative analyses with other Commonwealth nations, and deeper exploration of socio-political influences on military policy would provide a more comprehensive understanding. Such research would illuminate the successes and limitations of New Zealand’s strategic decisions, offering valuable insights into military preparedness in times of global uncertainty.

For modern logisticians, the lessons from this period underscore the importance of strategic foresight, resource management, adaptability, collaboration, and continuous training—key components in ensuring a state of readiness in an ever-changing global landscape. The collaborative efforts of the NZAOC, the Quartermaster General, and the NZASC exemplify how integrated logistical planning and execution are critical to maintaining military effectiveness.

The 1931 Reductions of the New Zealand Military: A Historical Analysis

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Largely forgotten today, the early 1930s marked a tumultuous period for the New Zealand military which was profoundly impacted by the Great Depression. In 1931, facing unprecedented economic pressures, the military was compelled to enact severe cutbacks and reductions. The lessons drawn from these pivotal events offer invaluable insights into fortifying the resilience and adaptability of today’s military forces amidst contemporary strategic and economic uncertainties.

Establishment and Early Developments

Established in 1917, the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps (NZAOC) quickly became integral to the country’s Permanent Military Forces. However, the onset of the global economic depression triggered substantial changes in New Zealand’s military funding and organisational structure. As the worldwide economic downturn took hold, austerity measures and restructuring became unavoidable, necessitating a comprehensive overhaul of the NZAOC to align with the new economic realities.

Badges of the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps, 1917 -1937. Robert McKie Collection

Established in 1917, the intervening years had seen the NZAOC decline in personnel from its peak strength of 493 in 1919 to an average of 118 officers and other ranks between 1920 and 1930. Despite this reduction, significant infrastructural advancements replaced the colonial-era facilities with modern buildings across various locations. Key NZAOC establishments included:

  • Northern Military District:
    • Ordnance Depot and Workshop at Waikato Camp in Hopuhopu, constructed in 1928.
    • Ordnance Workshop at Devonport’s artillery yard (now the RNZN Museum).
    • Small Arms Ammunition Testing Staff stationed at the Colonial Ammunition Company factory in Mount Eden, Auckland.
  • Central Military District:
    • The Main Ordnance Depot and Workshop at Trentham was established as a permanent camp in 1915.
    • The Ammunition Section at Fort Balance.
  • Southern Military District:
    • The Ordnance Depot and Workshop at Burnham Camp was established in 1921 with the ongoing construction of new infrastructure.

These developments underscored the NZAOC’s strategic presence in the Northern, Central, and Southern Military Districts.

1938 Military Camp, Hopuhopu, Waikato. Whites Aviation Ltd: Photographs. Ref: WA-55972-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23181165

Economic Downturn and Military Reorganisation

The economic downturn of the early 1930s necessitated severe cuts to government expenditure, compelling the New Zealand military to undergo substantial reorganisation. In 1930, the military’s strength stood at 555 regulars and 16,990 Territorials. By 1931, this was reduced to 349 regulars and 3,655 Territorials. These reductions were implemented under the provisions of the Finance Act, 1930 (No. 2), which facilitated compulsory retirements and transfers to civilian roles for many NZAOC personnel.

The Act authorised the retirement on superannuation of any member of the Permanent Force or the Permanent Staff under the Defence Act, 1909, or of the clerical staff of the Defence Department whose age or length of service was such that if five years had been added they would have been enabled as of right or with the consent of the Minister of Defence to have given notice to retire voluntarily. Compulsory retirement under this Act was facilitated in two tranches:

  • Tranche 1: Personnel Retired without Superannuation:
    • Servicemen eligible for retirement under the provision of the Act who were not contributing to the superannuation scheme were notified on 13 December 1930 of their impending release. They were granted six weeks of special leave, effective 31 December 1930, with their final release scheduled for 11 February 1931 after completing their notice period.
  • Tranche 2: Personnel Retired with Superannuation:
    • Servicemen eligible for retirement under the provision of the Act who were contributing to the superannuation scheme received notification on 13 December 1930. Their salary continued until 31 March 1931, with superannuation benefits commencing in April. Accrued leave entitlements were taken concurrently during this notice period, resulting in much leave accrued forfeited.

These tranches included Ordnance soldiers who had joined the NZAOC since its formation in 1917. Some had transferred directly from the Defence Stores, while others had served in the pre-war Permanent Forces or had active service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF). Their compulsory retirement represented a significant loss of knowledge and experience for the New Zealand military. Under the provisions of section 39 of the Finance Act, 1930 (No. 2), 44 members of the NZAOC were placed on compulsory retirement, including the following personnel who have so far been identified.

Northern Military District

  • 948. Lieutenant Michael Joseph Lyons, MSM

  • 968 Sergeant Thomas Alexander Hunter, MSM

  • 62 Private Frank Jewiss

  • 166 Sergeant William John Rabbidge

  • 268 Staff Quartermaster Sergeant James Alexander Kenning

  • Captain Frank Edwin Ford

Central Military District

  • 19 Sergeant Alfred Charles Butler    

  • 39 Corporal Simon Alexander Fraser

  • 64 Gunner Maurice Francis Johnstone          

  • 111 Corporal John Sawyer   

  •  920 Corporal Gordon James Francis Arenas 

  • 941 Sergeant William Hans McIlraith         

  •  956 Staff Sergeant Saddler George Alexander Carter, MSM

  • 960 Sergeant Frank William Ching

  • 965 Corporal Philip Alexander MacKay MSM

  • 976 Private William Valentine Wood MSM

  • 978 Corporal Earnest John Williams MSM

  • 1018 Sargeant Major James Oliver Pringle Southgate           

  • 1024 Armament-Artificer Eric Wallace Jepson       

  •  Lieutenant L.A Clement

  • Captain Alfred William Baldwin

  • Captain William Moody Bell

  • 55 Staff Quartermaster Sergeant John Francis Hunter MSM

  • 143 Armament Sergeant Major (WO1) Joseph Warren

  • 995 Staff Sergeant Wilfred Robert White

Southern Military District

  • 2 Armament Staff Quartermaster Sergeant John Alexander Adamson MSM

  • 1006 Lance Corporal Norman William Wilkie

  • Corporal Cecil John Knight

  • Captain Arthur Rumbold Carter White

  • 966 Lance Corporal William Terrington Popple, MSM

Transition to Civilian Roles

To achieve further cost savings, 74 NZAOC soldiers received notifications in December 1930 that their positions would be retained but transferred to civilian roles with civilian pay rates. This transition took effect in February 1931, causing significant disruption for those affected, including the loss of accumulated leave and adjustment to civilian life..

Some of these soldiers were transferred to other departments within the defence establishment, while the majority remained in their current roles within the NZAOC Ordnance Depots and workshops. They transitioned overnight from wearing uniforms to civilian clothes, with significantly reduced rates of pay and civil service conditions of service. The following personnel have so far been identified as being transferred to the Civil Staff.

Northern Military District

  • 967 Corporal Robert John Gamble

  • 974 Corporal Henry William Le Comte

  • 983 Sergeant Clifford Verne Little

  • 996 Lance Corporal Athol Gilroy McCurdy

  • 202 Lance Corporal Arthur Graham Munday

Central Military District

  • 972 Private John Dennis Anderson   

  • 35 Lance Corporal Harry Harper Ekins        

  • 1061 Lance Corporal Earnest Fenton

  • 4 Sergeant Kenneth Olaf John Andersen     

  •  699 Corporal Oliver Avis, MM

  • 889 Staff Sergeant George Bagnell   

  • 1004 Lance Corporal James Johnston Bolt  

  • 961 Lance Corporal Edgar Charles Boult     

  • 1000 Private George Cumming Bremner      

  • 1027 Artificer William Cowan Brizzle         

  • 1003 Lance Corporal Ernest Carr      

  • 1012 Lance Corporal Charles Fred Ecob      

  • 864 Corporal William Charles Francis          

  • 1025 Tent-Repairer-Artificer Herbert Roy Griffin   

  • 714 Lance Corporal Kenneth Hoare  

  • 1016 Private Ernest William Hughes            

  • 989 Corporal Percy Reuben Hunter  

  • 213 Lance Corporal William Saul Keegan   

  • 1019 Private Edward Gavin Lake     

  • 342 Corporal Allen Charles Leighton

  • 998 Lance Corporal Allen Dudley Leighton 

  • 1011 Lance Corporal Geoffrey Charles Leighton     

  • 363 Staff Sergeant David Llewellyn Lewis, MSM

  • 1007 Lance Corporal Thomas James Mclaughlin     

  • 1020 Private John Douglas Melville 

  • 894 SQMS (WO2) James Moroney  Sergeant David Nicol]

  • 1023 Lance Corporal John Nixon      

  • 467 Corporal George Wantford Pamment    

  • 1013 Private Francis Reid     

  • 1022 Private Henry McKenzie Reid 

  • 1014 Wheeler-Artificer Robert Stacey Vincent Rowe              

  • 665 Private William Alexander Sammons    

  • 927 Private Leonard William Sanders           

  • 963 Corporal Albert Edward Shadbolt          

  • 138 Lance Corporal David Henry Strickland

  • 1017 Private Lionel Herbert Stroud  

Southern Military District

  • 970 Sergeant Edward Vincent Coleman

  • 1028 Private Percival Nowell Erridge

  • 959 Sergeant Charles Edward Gleeson

  • 1276 Private Lewis Haslett

  • 885 Corporal Charles James Johnston Storie

  • 728 Private William Sampson Valentine

Impact on Military Preparedness and Social Consequences

The compulsory retirements and transfers to civilian roles led to a reduction in the NZAOC’s military strength, impacting its preparedness during subsequent years. However, beginning in 1934, improved government finances allowed for an increase in the army’s training tempo, despite global events hinting at looming conflict. The following personnel who have so far been identified as been retained:

Northern Military District

  • 984 Staff Sergeant Thomas Joseph Holliday

  • 1260 Armament Staff Quartermaster Sergeant Samuel Thomson MSM

  • 915 Armament Staff Sergeant Eric John Hunter

  • 141 Armourer Corporal Reginald Samuel Henry Lyons

Central Military District

  • 14 Armament Sergeant Major Bertram  Buckley           

  • 992 Armament Corporal Hilliard Charles Cooper

  • 1029 Artificer James  Dabney          

  •  964 Warrant Officer Class 1 John William Dalton

  • 1032 Armourer Staff Sergeant Frederick Henry Dew

  • 979 Armourer Staff Sergeant John William Evers

  • 1026 Armament Sergeant Leo Stanley Jefcoate

  • Major Thomas Joseph King

  • 945 WO2 Armament SQMS Henry Albert Wiliam Pierard

  • 1021 Armament Staff Sergeant Arthur Sydney Richardson

  • 1010 Lance Corporal George Frederick Robert Ware

Southern Military District

  • 7 Corporal Percey Charles Austin

  • 25 Armourer Staff Sargeant Francis Augustus Clapshaw

  • Lieutenant Henry Erridge Erridge

The reduction in the Territorial Force in 1931 resulted in decreased activity in subsequent years. However, beginning in 1934, improved government finances allowed for an increase in the army’s training tempo. Concurrently, global events in China, Ethiopia, and Germany hinted at looming conflict, prompting a gradual shift towards preparing for future mobilisation. Under the leadership of Major Thomas Joseph King, who served as Director of Ordnance Services (DOS) since 1924, the NZAOC worked diligently within its means to enhance readiness, including designing a new system of stores accounting for the emerging Royal New Zealand Air Force.

The new NZAOC Badge was approved in 1937. Robert McKie Collection

King focused on recruiting new personnel and leveraging his civilian staff, who were former NZAOC soldiers, to reenlist experienced individuals into key leadership roles at Trentham, Hopuhopu, and Burnham. When war was declared in September 1939, King successfully mobilised his small military and civilian team to form the rump of the New Zealand Ordnance Corps (NZOC) within the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF).

During the 1938-45 war, nearly all NZAOC soldiers who had been transferred to civilian roles in 1931 found themselves back in uniform, restarting their military careers as Ordnance Officers, Warrant Officers, and Senior Non-Commissioned Officers (SNCOs) alongside their peers who had been retained. Many from this group continued to provide leadership within the RNZAOC and Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (RNZEME) up to the 1960s, with several even holding the prestigious position of DOS in the post-war army.

Lieutenant Colonel Francis Reid handed over the position of DOS to his brother, Lieutenant Colonel Henry McKenzie Reid, on 31 March 1957. Both brothers joined the NZAOC as soldiers in the late 1920s, only to be transferred to the civilian staff in 1931. Commissioned during WW2, both served with distinction throughout the war.

Negative Effects and Lessons Learned

The 1931 reductions in the New Zealand military, driven by the economic pressures of the Great Depression, had profound and lasting negative effects, both socially and in terms of military preparedness. Socially, the abrupt compulsory retirements and transitions to civilian roles caused significant upheaval for the affected soldiers and their families. The loss of accumulated leave and the sudden shift from military to civilian life resulted in considerable stress and financial strain.

In terms of military preparedness, the reductions led to a substantial loss of experienced personnel and institutional knowledge. The drastic decrease in the Territorial Force and overall military strength severely hampered the country’s ability to maintain an effective and ready military force. The reduced activity and training during the early 1930s left the military less prepared for the impending global conflicts of the late 1930s and early 1940s than in 1914. This lack of preparedness could have had dire consequences had international tensions escalated more quickly.

However, subsequent efforts to rebuild, modernise, and mobilise the military demonstrated the resilience and adaptability of the New Zealand military. Starting in 1934 under the leadership of Major Thomas Joseph King, the NZAOC enhanced its readiness by recruiting new personnel and reenlisting former soldiers from the civilian staff. The return of nearly all NZAOC soldiers to uniformed service during the 1939-1945 war showcased their dedication and the critical role of experienced personnel in maintaining military effectiveness.

The 1931 reductions’ experiences highlight the importance of balancing economic constraints and the need for a capable and prepared military force. These lessons remain relevant today as modern military forces navigate similar challenges amidst strategic and economic uncertainties. Ensuring that reductions do not compromise long-term readiness and resilience is crucial for the effective functioning of any military organisation.

Notes

[1] (1930). “H-19 Defence Forces of New Zealand, Annual report of the General Officer Commanding the Forces.” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives.

[2] (1931). “H-19 Defence Forces of New Zealand, Annual report of the General Officer Commanding the Forces June 1930 to May 1931.” Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1 January 1941.

[3] (1914). King, Thomas Joseph. Personal File, Archives New Zealand. Wellington.

RNZAOC Corps Day 2024

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In the New Zealand Army, commemorating significant days by various Corps and Regiments serves a dual purpose: honouring historical milestones and fostering unit cohesion. Each celebration, whether it’s “Gunners Day” for the Royal New Zealand Artillery or “Corps Day” for the Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps (RNZAOC), holds profound symbolic value.

For the RNZAOC, the designation of 12 July as Corps Day is more than just a date on the calendar. It signifies a commitment to readiness and operational excellence. This day marks the granting of Royal Status in 1947, acknowledging the NZAOC’s pivotal contributions during World War II. It reminds us of their indispensable role in providing logistical and ordnance support, which is critical for our military’s operational success.

In today’s geopolitical landscape, characterised by a resurgence in potential peer-to-peer conflicts reminiscent of the 1940s, nations like New Zealand are grappling with the limitations of past strategies. Attempts to globalise manufacturing, civilianise military supply chains, and adopt lean models post-Cold War have left us less prepared for contemporary warfare challenges compared to the military readiness observed before the conflicts of the late 1930s.

Historically, the NZAOC faced significant challenges, notably in 1931 during a global financial downturn when the New Zealand Army underwent substantial reductions. Despite these setbacks, from 1934 onwards, the NZAOC began rebuilding its capabilities, laying the groundwork for mobilising an expeditionary force by 1939. This transformation positioned the NZAOC as a well-organised corps crucial to supporting New Zealand’s military efforts during the Second World War.

Recognising its wartime contributions by granting Royal status in 1947 was a testament to the NZAOC’s resilience and excellence. Even as the RNZAOC was disbanded in 1996 and its functions integrated into the Royal New Zealand Army Logistic Regiment, concerns over the loss of institutional knowledge emerged. The expertise accumulated since 1917, when the RNZAOC pioneered military stores provisioning and warehousing in New Zealand, has significantly diminished due to modernisation efforts within the NZDF to streamline logistics operations.

While these observances uphold institutional memory and traditions within our military, critics argue they risk becoming mere rituals without meaningful engagement with contemporary challenges or advancements in military practice. Hence, while honouring historical milestones remains crucial, adapting to modern operational demands is equally imperative for our military’s continued success. Keeping the window to past achievements open allows us to draw inspiration and lessons from history while evolving to effectively meet present and future challenges.

In conclusion, the observance of Corps and Regimental days in the New Zealand Army is pivotal in maintaining tradition and bolstering unit cohesion. However, this must be complemented by a forward-looking approach that ensures readiness and effectiveness in contemporary military operations. Balancing these aspects is key to navigating future challenges while honouring our rich military heritage.

Sua Tela Tonanti

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The Battle of Crete: Overlooked Logistics Behind a Pivotal WWII Conflict

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The Battle of Crete fought from 20 May to 1 June 1941, is a significant episode in World War II history, marked by remarkable successes and glaring failures. This battle was the first primarily airborne invasion, where German paratroopers (Fallschirmjäger) played a crucial role in the Axis powers’ strategic operations. Despite the eventual German victory, the high cost of casualties and the fierce resistance from Allied forces, including British, Australian, New Zealand, and Greek troops, left an indelible mark on military tactics and strategy.

While much has been written about the dramatic combat actions and strategic implications of the Battle of Crete, the logistics behind providing ammunition and other essential stores remain unknown. The rapid pace of the German invasion, coupled with the chaotic and desperate defence mounted by the Allies, meant that detailed records of logistical operations were often overlooked or lost. This gap in historical documentation has left many questions unanswered about how the defenders managed to sustain their efforts under such dire circumstances.

However, the War Diary of the New Zealand Division Assistant Director of Ordnance Services (ADOS) is a valuable resource on this overlooked battle aspect. This diary provides a rare and insightful glimpse into the New Zealand Division’s logistic efforts, revealing logistics challenges, resourcefulness, and critical role in the battle. Through the entries of this war diary, we gain a deeper understanding of the behind-the-scenes efforts that supported the front-line troops, highlighting the unsung heroes who, as much as practicably possible, ensured that ammunition and other stores reached those in need, often under the most perilous conditions.

This article explores the lesser-known logistical efforts that played a crucial role in the conflict. By delving into the War Diary of the New Zealand Division ADOS, we aim to provide a different understanding of the battle, understanding the resilience and ingenuity of those who worked tirelessly behind the scenes to support the New Zealand defence.

Following the disastrous Greek campaign, General Freyberg assumed command of Crete Force (Creforce) for the defence of Crete on 1 May 1941, deploying approximately 28,600 British, Australian, Greek, and New Zealand troops across four sectors: Heraklion, Retimo, Suda Bay, and Maleme. Despite the seemingly adequate size of this force, several factors significantly reduced its combat effectiveness. The Germans held complete air superiority, with only the British 14th Brigade fully equipped. A severe shortage of small arms ammunition and the lack of vehicles rendered mobile defence impossible. Each sector had to maintain a static defence within its locality, contributing to the island’s immobility and, ultimately, the failure to repel the enemy.

Initially, the Ordnance aspects of the operation were under the command of Creforce Assistant Director of Ordnance Services (ADOS) Lieutenant-Colonel J. Hitchcock of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps (RAOC), who arrived on 24 April. However, by mid-May, he was recalled to Egypt, and the leadership was passed to Lieutenant-Colonel S. T. Rooke RAOC, who had also been evacuated from Greece.[1]

There was a small RAOC Base Ordnance Depot (BOD)depot in Canea, with a Base Ammunition Depot (BAD) established approximately two miles south at Katisfariana. Following the evacuation of forces from Greece and their immediate pivot to defend Crete, the immediate task was to supply clothing, essentials, blankets, and accommodation stores to thousands of troops who had landed from Greece. Three camps were set up:

  • Peribolia for 17,000 British troops
  • Kalibes for 12,000 men of the 6th Australian Division
  • Platanias for 14,000 New Zealanders
British, Australian and New Zealand troops disembark at Suda Bay, Crete, during World War II. New Zealand. Department of Internal Affairs. War History Branch. Ref: DA-01611-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23172196

This number was eleven times greater than originally planned for clothing and equipment supply. Transporting stores between ports was primarily conducted by caiques under cover of night. However, the supply of weapons and ammunition remained highly problematic. The general strategy involved holding ammunition primarily in fighting sectors, with only a fifth stored in the BAD. The LADs, having been forced to abandon their equipment in Greece, were severely restricted in their capacity for first-line repairs.

The Australians benefited from the well-trained 3 Advanced Ordnance Depot (3AOD) supporting their division, whereas New Zealand’s ordnance support was more ad hoc.[2] It relied on New Zealand Ordnance Corps (NZOC) members from the NZ Divisional staff to establish makeshift Ordnance Dumps and a distribution system. Major Allan Huia Andrews, as the New Zealand Division Assistant Director of Ordnance Services (ADOS), and Captain John Owen Kelsey, serving as DADOS Engineering (DADOS(E)), commanded these efforts. However, both Divisions struggled because the proper supply and support systems that should have been in place for such a campaign were non-existent.

The NZ Division ADOS war diary opened on 25 May 1941 as the NZ Division ADOS evacuated from Greece and arrived in Crete

25 April

At sea

Convoy attacked but raiders driven off.

Arrived at Crete

26 April

At Crete

27 April

With ADOS to see ADOS of Creforce and W/Ksps.

Issued with 1 8-cwt truck for Div HQ.

28 April

Act as Div Transport officer with 6 trucks ex Welch Regt.

Move to Div HQ location

29 April

Normal routine

30 April

To 1Fd Wksp to take OC’s orderly room in the absence of ADOS. Case of Private Burnt who discharged a rifle and killed a local inhabitant. Summary of evidence and charges read to the accused who pleads “Not Guilty”. The case is remanded. Summary of evidence submitted to ADOS.

ADOS Leave Crete, and I am temporally appointed to act for him

1 May

After the departure of Major Andrews, Major Kelsey was temporarily appointed DADOS of the Maleme Sector of Crete Force.

Collected stores and ammunition from Ordnance Dump for Div. Reserves.

To Inspect NZ Ordnance Dump.

Reported on the position of re-equipment of NZ Units to AA and QMG

2 May

Completed report of DADOS(E) on the work of Fd. Workshops, LADs. and OFP. in Greece and submitted this to DDOS, HQ 2NZEF

3 May

Normal routine

4 May

Collected supplies from BOD. Normal routine

5 May

Collected supplies from BOD. Normal routine.

6 May

Distributed shorts, shirts, hose tops, 2” and 3” Mortars, Anti-Tank Rifles and ammunition to Units.

7 May

To Canea to interview ADOS and COO of Crete Force

Further distribution of clothing and camp equipment to 5 Inf Bde

8 May

Normal Routine

10 May

Normal routine

Further distribution of stores and ammunition to units

11 May

Normal routine

12 May

To see ADOS Creforce and work with him on plan for equipping NZ units on a pro-rata basis

13 May

Fierce Air Raid over Suda Bay.

Bdes issued with 5 Carriers Bren each.

All units were requested to render deficiencies in clothing and camp equipment.

Distributed 1400 coils of wire and pickets to 5 and 10 Bdes.

14 May 1941

Further distribution of ammunition, wire, and pickets to all units.

Issue of 12 M/Cycles to NZ units.

Move with Div. HQ. to a new location 1 1/2 miles from Canea.

 Heavy Air Raid.

15 May

Move the NZ Ordnance Dump to the NZ Div HQ area as there was no protection where this dump was previously located.

Prepare issue orders for all Bde Groups.

Lieut Cooper (16 LAD) was instructed to report to Suda Bay to assemble 75mm French and Italian Guns

16 May

To Canea to investigate the position of Ordnance supplies

Heavy Air raid in Suda Bay

17 May

36 15cwt trucks and 7 M/Cycles issued to NZ units

18 May

Normal routine

19 May

Normal routine

20 May

The German invasion of Crete began, and the parachutists landed.

General strafing all-day

Delivered ammunition as follows:

97250rds SAA

20000rds Stripless LMG

500rds A/Tk

Cpl Solon was taken prisoner but later recaptured.

21 May

Repetition of the previous day.

Collect ammunition reserve at dawn

Issue and blankets to German wounded

Heavy naval action at sea

Ammunition issued as follows:

110000rds SAA

100 Grenades

1100rds 75mm French and Italian

22 May

Very fierce strafing during the afternoon.

Ammunition issued as follows

97000rds SAA

6000rds Stripless LMG

340 Grenades

23 May

Very fierce strafing and bombing

Ammunition and stores issued as follows:

27000rds SAA

200 A/Tk mine

148 Grenades

700 Shovels

190 Picks

70 Coils of wire

140 Pickets

100 Local Bombs

24 May

The worst staffing so far experienced

Canea was systematically bombed.

Propose to recommend WO1 Schou for decoration for his conspicuous gallantry in delivering ammunition to units.

I was promoted to the rank of temp major while performing the duties of DADOS (E ).

Ammunition and stores issued as follows

90000rds SAA

10000rds Stripless SAA

480rds 75mm

8000rds Thompson Sub-MG

72rds Mortar 3”

60 coils wire and pickets

250 Shovels

60 Picks

25 May

Div HQ bombed

Ammunition issued as follows:

55000rds SAA

6000rds Stripless

2000rds Thompson Sub-MG

500rds A/tk

Div HQ moved to new location by wireless station outside Canea.

BAD Canea objects to the issue of ammunition after midnight as “their books were closed”. However, ammunition was obtained.

26 May

Serious strafing.

Bdes retiring

Take back 3 Ammunition lorries fully loaded to the east of Suda Bay and join Div HQ there

27 May

Move again down Sparkis Road.

Deliver Ammunition to 4 and 5 Bdes as follows:

100000rds SAA

10000rds Stripless LMG

2000rds Thompson Sub-MG

Strafed ceaselessly all day.

Move only at night.

28 May

Ammunition lorries taken by Force HQ.

Move again with Div HQ

Learn of evacuation scheme

29 May

Food and water position acute

March 12 miles to Embarkation Point but remain there.

30 May

Moral of troops getting low on account of enemy air activity and lack of food and water.

Prepare to embark

31 May

Embark with Div HQ at 2 am on destroyer “Nizam” and cross to Alexandria.

Bombed by 12 Planes en route but with only one “near miss”.

Arrive in Alexandria at 1830hrs.

ADOS NZ Div DADOS(E) War Diary for April 1941

World War II paratroopers and aeroplanes in the sky above Crete. New Zealand. Department of Internal Affairs. War History Branch : Ref: DA-12638-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22913202

In conclusion, the Battle of Crete was pivotal in World War II, marked by heroic defiance and sobering logistical challenges. From May 20 to June 1, 1941, German forces conducted the first large-scale airborne invasion in history, targeting the strategically vital island defended by British, Australian, New Zealand, and Greek troops. Despite fierce resistance, the overwhelming German air superiority and logistical deficiencies amongst the Allies ultimately led to their defeat.

While the battle is often remembered for its strategic implications and high casualties, the logistical efforts behind supplying essential stores like ammunition remained largely unexamined. The NZ Division ADOS War Diary offers a glimpse into the critical logistics operations that sustained the New Zealand defence. It reveals the resourcefulness and dedication of personnel who, under extreme conditions, where practicable possible, ensured that vital supplies reached frontline troops.

The logistical challenges faced during the battle, such as ammunition shortages and makeshift supply systems, underscore the critical importance of logistics in military operations. Though overshadowed by the dramatic combat actions, these efforts were instrumental in supporting the frontline troops and mitigating the impact of German assaults.

In commemorating the Battle of Crete, honouring the valour of those who fought on the front lines and the unsung heroes who laboured tirelessly behind the scenes is essential. Their contributions, as detailed in the War Diary and other historical records, provide a deeper understanding of the complexities and sacrifices of war. By remembering these logistical efforts, we gain a more comprehensive perspective on the battle, highlighting the resilience and ingenuity that defined the New Zealand defence on the island of Crete.

Thus, the Battle of Crete serves as a poignant reminder of the intertwined roles of combat and logistics in shaping war outcomes, leaving an enduring legacy in military history.

Notes

[1] Fernyhough, A. H. (1958). History of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps 1920-1945, Royal Army Ordnance Corps.

[2] Tilbrook, J. D. (1989). To the warrior his arms: A History of the Ordnance Services in the Australian Army Royal Australian Army Ordnance Corps Committee.